



















Bo / 


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U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 





PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS 











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R. Y. STUART, SECRETARY 
TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SURVEY 
GEORGE H. ASHLEy, STATE GEOLOGIST 








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TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC 
ATLAS OF PENNSYLVANIA 
SHEET 206, ALLENTOWN AREA, PLATE I 















































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Base from U. S. Geological Survey topographic map 
of Allentown quadrangle, Pennsylvania 
Surveyed in 1893 


MAP OF THE ALLENTOWN QUADRANGLE, PENNSYLVANIA 


Showing Topography 
Seale 42%00 


4 Miles 


= 


























5 Kilometers 












Datum ts mean sea level. 


1925 


A HOEN &CO BALTIMORE MO 


Additional railroads added igi9 by 
B. L. Miller and from data furnished 
by the several railroads. City streets 
extended from maps by as engi- 
neers, 1924. 


oe | 
On a 
"206 


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we 


PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS 
R. Y. SMR SpoRirane AND WATERS 












TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC 








U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TOPOGRAPHIC|AND GEOLOGIC SURVEY ATLAS OF PENNSYLVANIA 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR GEORGE H. ASHLEY, STATE GEOLOGIST SHEET 206, ALLENTOWN AREA, PLATE II 
| =| 
(Wind Gap) 20' T5115, 





ss 


scsvills 








Piz 




















Karasitiqua 
\ oe { x 2 


abs 


eMicklers == 
2a West \ 4 
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Sot a 





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S26 & Fullerton 























(Slatington) 


















































(Basten) 





























20 - ™ 
Lae z - zs 
75°30 (Quakertown) 








40° 
75° 8 











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ee eee oe ae MAP ORAL H HeALLENIEOWaN 


Surveyed in 1893. 


AHOEN & CO. BALTIMORE 


QUADRANGLE, PENNSYLVANIA TOOT oa forthe Us 8. Geological Suivey 


City streets extended from maps by city Showing Areal and Economic Geology 


engineers, 1924. 


at 
= 


x 1 
Seale 62500 








ea 2 3 4 Miles 























$ Oo gS 
= = 


L: 2 3 5 Kilometers 








he 








Contour interval 20 feet. 


Datum ve mean sea level, 


1925 


EXPLANATION 


AREAL GEOLOGY 


Diabase 
(Furnishes building stone, paving blocks, and road metal) 


WR 





Shales, sandstones, and conglomerates 
ofa prevailing red color 


(Furnishes building stone and road metal. 
Contains traces of copper) 


Martinsburg shale 
Black shales and slates with occasional beds 
of brown sandstone and lenses of limestoue, Is 
(Contains workable beds of slate and lenses of limestone 
suitable for lime and road metal) 





Black argillaceous limestone (cement rock) 
(Extensively used in manufacture of Portland cement) 


A 


Gray Merestoxes low in magnesia 
(cement limestone) 


(Used in manufacture of Portland cement and lime) 





Dolomitie limestones 


(Used for lime, flux, and road metal; certain strata suitable 
for cement. Contain limonite and zine. Generally over- 
lain by brick clay of Pleistocene age) 


Hardyston quartzite 
(sandstones and quartzites) 


(Quarried for building and road metal purposes. 
Contains limonite and some pyrite and manganese) 


Highly erystalline graphitic limestone 
(Used for cement and flux) 





Gneisses of both sedimentary and igneous 
origin 
(Used for road metal and building stone. 
Weathered rock used for sand. Contains magnetite 
and graphite with some mica and traces of gold) 


ECONOMIC FEATURES 
IRON MINES 





Limonite mine in Cambrian and Ordovician 
limestones (“Valley ores’’) 


Nos. 1 to 75; all abandoned 


® 133 


Limonite mine in Cambrian quartzites and 
sandstones (‘‘Mountain ores”’) 


Nos. 76 to 133; all abandoned 


x 152 


Magnetite mine in pre-Cambrian gneiss. 
Outcrop of veins shown north of Vera Cruz 
Station 
Nos. 134 to 152 ; all abandoned except mine No. 138 
Numbers correspond to descriptions in text 


LIMESTONE AND CEMENT 
ROCK QUARRIES 





Quarry in operation 





Abandoned quarry 


i—For lime 

&—For flux 

& M —For road metal 
C—For cement 


STONE QUARRIES 
OTHER THAN LIMESTONE 


Quarry in operation 





Abandoned quarry 


S! —Slate 
Ss —Sandstone 
Gn —Gneiss 
Ser —Quartz-sericite schist (‘‘soapstone’’) 
D6 _Diabase 
SAND, GRAVEL, AND 


CLAY PITS 





Pit in operation 


oF 


Abandoned pit 
Gn —Decomposed gneiss sand 
G/ —Glacial sand and gravel 
Al —Alluvial sand and gravel 


Fe —Sand from mud-dam deposits of 
abandoned limonite iron mines 


Brick —Clay used for bricks 
Cement —Clay used for cement 


WELLS AND SPRINGS 


0190 


Bored well 
Numbers refer to depth in feet 





Spring 


Note: 
The economic features on the map, 
especially in regard to springs, 
are not complete 








ORDOVICIAN TRIASSIC 


CAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN AND 


PRE-CAMBRIAN 


ORDOVICIAN 


pas te 


ho. 206 


PS 
et 


ALLENTOWON ATLAS PLATE III 
PENNSYLVANIA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY . 

































=z 

















MAP SHOWING MAGNETIC SURVEYS 
IN VICINITY OF VERA CRUZ 

LEHIGH COUNTY, 
PENNSYLVANIA 












































Scale 
oO 200 400 600 800 FEET 
E = =i E 








EXPLANATION 
s 
Shaft 
PZ) : 
| Exploration pit 
ey] 
Building 















Strike of vein 





age 
Dip of vein 


















TO EMAUS 22M _—> 


von BEKO 
CY 


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= YN Ws 
Z z See Ss he SMA ss 2 to 
Ps SILL . << ENe ee 2 ANY NN f 


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/ : : = 9 is neal 733 a4 Ls ee] 
é pe, as SUE : = : : hb 2 T = <a aT aes a 37 % s Base line of survey S.662W. 
Pipa A PLR RET Fi ed 7 A WT | / mee Aaa 
SINE POD ++ fod, LITE / THIS ANS { = j 7 : Ly thf EUNK oo Tl el 1 
Vax ; “38/, OYE ALL BLL BO LO ar ED q 
LI NI Ie OEE 
i 7 , 
NO NG Rat Oe EXPLANATION 
(is j \® p Is a 6 (CONTINUED ) 
5 es ya 2 | TTT 
| \ 
oY AN S y , = el fo || | | | 
6 pe EOS > ; 2 nee - 
EI SR _ Le J ' LAs 2 Lt Magnetic intensity less than 10 degrees 7 
a 45 . ifs i A 4 6 20 
So j VZEa “ie C | i B a - 
& y Or , re Is , é. // 
7 ( : , le Le 5 - “A 








jo | 5 _ Magnetic intensity between 0 and 25 degrees 





= _ “@ | | 
*— an PP nse WM 
sa aa ao Magnetic intensity between 25 and 50 degrees 








| | ae \\ 


Magnetic intensity more than 50 degrees 


Note- Magnetic readings were taken every 10 feet along lines 
100 feet apart running approximately at_right angles to 


trend of mountain. Only about every fifth observation 
1s shown 

















557 
P382te 
ne. 206 


Ne p 


PENNSYLVANIA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


ALLENTOWN ATLAS PLATE IV 








vEBERROTH MINE 





TRUE NORTH 
















MAG 






La) 
e 
Gueres ortich VA Store room 






















* North openir 
Old. eee a 
30 feet deep 










South opening 
Old Hartman mine 
90 feet deep 





Drill hole C! 
Ss Drill hole B’ 











MINE 
THREE. CORNERS M5 


Depth os tt. Dip 2 



































Church property 








CORRELL MINE =a 
150 Feet deep 








= est, 
/ojew HARTMAN MINE | \ Jacob Correll 


cP 
office 


Je shows 
Black circ tion oF 


ace / loca 
Gs) ageijoned sha 
2s Drill hole A = 


cr es 











A Drill hole A* 


& Drill hole D' \ David Hariman 














ae Samuel Adams 





100 
ee | 


fo 


190 200 300 400 500 Feet 
zi eel J 5 











Map showi i 
p showing locations and developments of the Friedensville zinc mines. 


PENNSYLVANIA 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
FOURTH SERIES 


THE WBRARY OF (HE 
— DCT 2h 0A 
TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLQgugygRSITY OF {ANOIS™ 

GE LAS 
es 

PENNSYLVANIA 


NO. 206 
ALLENTOWN QUADRANGLE 


MINERAL RESOURCES 
By 


BENJAMIN LERoy MILLER 


Published in cooperation with the United States Geological Survey 


Department of Forests and Waters 
R. Y. Stuart, Secretary 





Topographic and Geologic Survey 
G. H. Ashley, State Geologist 


~ 


COPYRIGHTED, 1925 


By R. Y. STUART 


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7 


tA / L/ OKA 0 


LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
R. Y. Stuart, Secretary. 
Department of Forests and Waters. 
Sirs 


I have the honor to transmit herewith for printing, a report on the 
Mineral Resources of the Allentown Quadrangle by Professor B. L. 
Miller, Head of the Department of Geology of Lehigh University and 
cooperating geologist of this Survey. This is one of a number of 
detailed reports to be submitted, all of which will together constitute 
the Topographic and Geologic Atlas of Pennsylvania. The report 
covers the area of a quadrangle, lying between 15’ lines of latitude 
and longitude. In form and character it follows the many “folios” 
and “economic bulletins” previously published by the State and 
Federal governments on the geology of Pennsylvania. 

The mineral resources of the region are of much financial interest. 
They include the heart of the Lehigh cement district, containing the 
largest cement mill in the world; the most important zine deposits 
known in the State; also iron, slate, ochre and other deposits of 
value. 

The expenses of the survey and the preparation of the report had 
been borne entirely by the U. 8S. Geological Survey. I asked per- 
mission to publish it, first, because of the many requests for informa- 
tion on the region covered; and second, because its publication by the 
Federal Survey seemed likely to be greatly delayed, by the inad- 
equate printing appropriation of that Survey. 


Respectfully submitted, 


State Geologist. 





PREFACE. 


The Topographic and Geologic Atlas of Pennsylvania presents 
the results of the Survey’s “thorough and extended survey of the 
State for the purpose of elucidating the geology and topography of 
the State.” (Act of June 7, 1919, establishing Survey.) 

The Act further provides: “The Survey shall disclose such chem- 
ical analysis and location of ores, coals, oils, clays, soils, fertilizing 
and other useful minerals, and of waters, as shall be necessary 
to afford the agricultural, mining, metallurgical, and other interests 
of the State, a clear insight into the character of its resources. The 
Survey shall also disclose the location and character of such rock 
formation as may be useful in the construction of highways or for 
any other purpose”. 

The results of the surveys may, in accordance with the pro- 
visions of the Act, be presented in the form of several series of 
publications as follows: 


1. Topographic Atlas Sheets 16 x 20 inches: The surveys for 
these sheets are made by the State in cooperation with the 
U. S. Geological Survey, each paying half the costs. The 
engraving, printing and distribution of these sheets is done 
by the U. 8. Geological Survey at Washington, D. C. 


be 


The Topographic and Geologic Atlas: Maps and texts show- 
ing and describing the topography, geology and mineral re- 
sources of the State by quadrangles. This series continues 
and supplements all ‘folios’ and “economic bulletins” of 
Pennsyivania already published by the U. S. Geological Survey 
in cooperation with the State. Each quadrangle is an area 
about 174 miles long from north to south and about 134 miles 
wide from east to west and is represented by a single map or 
sheet. The quadrangles are numbered from west to east and 
from north to south. Sheet No. 206 is in the twenty-first row 
from the western edge, and the sixth sheet from _ the 
northern boundary of the State. The reports constituting the 
atlas will bear the same numbers. The following figure shows 
the sheets already issued, and the distribution status of each. 
(The numbers on folios and bulletins of the U. S. Geological 
Survey do not follow this system. ) 


(5) 


‘suUOTJBOTTGNd 9y} o}VUsISep Stoquinu oq, 

‘) ‘q ‘WOWUIYSVAA ‘S}UEeMMIOG Jo JUspUdjUTIedNg oy} Worf UIBIGO 

“) ‘C ‘WO SUIYSVAA JV AVAING [BITSO[OEH) “G “f) “AOJoITC ey, WOTF UTBIqQ “4 
‘SoLIVIQIL UL yNSUOM ‘JUuIId JO JNO °B 


‘eIUBATASUUeg UL SUTJET[NG puB soTpoy Jo deur Avy 


‘oO 





oo oes woe oe Of See” 


| Sod omic =F fi “« ‘ 
. 





espe} 2 
ae 
g214 








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( 


os 


County Reports: As the Atlas Sheets and Reports are highly 
detailed and somewhat technical, a series of County Reports 
will present the general facts in more popular language, and 
on maps without topography. These reports will also review 
the broader aspects of the subject, and in particular will pre- 
sent the detailed Soil Maps and Soil Reports. 


4. Mineral Resources: These reports are confined to describing 
and showing the location of a single mineral resource over 
the State, with studies of the technology, including the min- 
ing, preparation and marketing of the minerals. 


5. Underground Water Resources: In general, water resources 
will be discussed in the County Reports or in the Topo- 
graphic and Geologic Atlas, but general studies on under- 
ground water supplies will follow in a fifth series of reports. 


6. Soil Reports: In general, Soil Maps and Reports will ac- 
company the County Reports, but general maps or discussions 
on soil conditions will fall in this series. 


This report, having been prepared before the present State Survey 
was established, does not follow the stratigraphic nomenclature to 
be adopted for all new reports. 

However, as the stratigraphy plays a very small part in this re- 
port, it does not seem necessary to recast that portion of the re- 
port. This report has had the advantage of a revision by Professor 
Miller, immediately preceding its offer for publication. 





CONTENTS 


Page. 
ee LS Uti) hve alates Wcherele Made Oe cide Kida y uote 13 
TES ern ae are ono chico aisha o's se sie ttt ers. tein © spas OO giles wih. oa eg 13 
CIDE Tae Aap 2 Oe ae eo Ae SRL oe ae 14. 
ES coe ody cath s rec WA scca. > 6b Rinse cuore wo eit oe dhe elects sluc con 14 
Ne fae a oa ale Glas Sir aie clus s one's evo le ee Wolo oss a eghistere: Riots, & 17 
a eet fe I Sw wb dle saiehe «wre Was s/s es ete whe 6 lene ys 
DEePUOUECITCAL V-ALI@Y siicla cs arv's ose ve bule bi eisewceeceed wogecec dawn ily 
MEE TehTYe. IVE OILTRCHITIO Mr ten % sas «¢ sos GE oibld edict ase e o> wales c's eee hs 19 
Piedmont Plateau ....... Os ca Re EEO Sarg CAP EA gd ea ie he 19 
A oe SP ete at Vols Meee Pe. SIE yo che y Wer ateiy Mie Steye cl iy pt oun a cio 20 
IIIS REUSE hs ‘aie gh Ia wet gin «os ie'e vcla sec ls' se: sete aye widvepe Wlavety celine @ bore 23 
MERTON 000 28s fa as Wo "Ske ei tae. teats aoe a bier a die ee dik Oke Seles hake ae anes 23 
Pemeeeecaraetel of (te), FOCESS ©... cs a5 ph seco anise wee lee detlca es 23 
SEO UP OSICLNSOS 125 ates ernie a's's shea eip eleies ee cadets sc Gels vee 24 
Pre-Cambrian crystalline graphitic limestone ..................0- 25 
Cambrian sandstones and conglomerates ......cceccccesccccccccece 26 
Cambrian and Ordovician dolomitic limestones ............eeeee0% 26 
RETIN VETILO RECTOR. tip ire Ar scale ek als Wincst asdiarciene ¥oe. were: ® > a. vole ac6.k. 0! ete 26 
NEE REN EE or, Pe ety M's Sarat lah Peale ele Gietoce eeie <eiau Lo late cloves soak 27 
Ordovician black shales and slates (Martinsburg shale) ........... ot 
Triassic shales, sandstones, and conglomerates ..........cccccccees at 
nee INR Le TSO oe Fe hh on ea z< se whe STS wih) e wane 4,8 Oe alae oleae 27 
TLCS ty tcl te aot arias tie saree dae ale wide, +. 6 ae ace Nlge awle og ave 28 
UMM ET AVI TTMaettes wilds tara, SPST al Lbs, inc o'er di dra she's bia & ceteNeaIdiG Go viele c-cle.e 28 
ee RT ALT Ne Ae ts veh ES tec alvo a o'al's' co. 6 ae olcie ele elm alee Cees csv’ 28 
aa ME ATURE TOO cet ccs ag tclcoa als etl sa didin! c\o ete wi o's ee elated tocol Sais bee eae 29 
Sen EOE STOO eee, ot Gee Ueie tad vie bole’ é s/c op sie ¢ she enue eave elie 0's o'ece 29 
eae MMOL Rr eye Ci eR igtei's: a 'osare e's Rease sraleaeeete ike eee ube ovine ; 29 
Pere ASeR MONEE AT THTVONILE) 4, ois clihle e e'> os 0 cade ule ass eDa ela eae eda oh 33 
MRE RTETRT OTN FMR UN ey teria ata nals: ala o Wee whe oie lone le sete Sinbevasatn ware tac abe 34 
rete Geet areca g Arties o.6 ober ciel ejeis ee cidle: fa, tig siecle siete 35 
an Were DONT) BIOLET | eee erat LF, OG leo Bin aie wr kte se ete w hdtere A eae ee 37 
eI OOML ATO tS o%, Ra ater Maite § akblerc ak, PQ Fhe ater ee Sia Giants Hohe ee minim etens 39 
Pe EUS Et MaMa te hdc) ain Sie Pieot oho aie PialSle, dle Ovicgthe eee ee eee See ee 8 41 
lime eG WOT KING) cr Petite a's 5 a ci eeotetc Mehl atets nite e eee evokes 48 
Prete POR RING PERCE: beds cialv aleve) ateatel tes ite e wtalelite se yea 50 
ETT ICMEM TLV OT ALOT ¢ Oa" ore. ae otatdid awe dlale’s she etoleboe Gatlin es ke 51 

Limonite mines in the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones 
Pe V EEC AGTOR Alclad cue tals oe ha cic Malalar eke ae vt ces Perera 52 
Limonite mines of the Cambrian quartzite (“mountain ores’’) 56 
PRR OOTALE + (SIGETILE) OLAS) 100689 at coeds oa eas ee han ob eens 62 
ee PRM PROS VGHES ooo) os sha" ors are! Neate ae Tage naw dig dahl oa) a alle coe oe es 63 
PL REPUINTAGIE -/ giaiaverxc ota late ce AP ARRON ce eral tate eae ee eae en ee as 63 
RM EE ET) CG), ot, or nutpidavt oataecoatee tebe ee ake eel et hasan ed Ere eh os 64 
PH arnater: ANG, COMPOSIELONL Ha Ae ae trrlicee pe eee nk ns 65 
EPA glo. oh cel tet Axe dred « Pes LE Oy trae Saree: Sah Wane 66 
RELICS: OL MATTER 50! a5: shat cetihehats) MERE GPeE ETEN Ue cto ene ec ave nla 67 
Ba + CONSICETALIOUS (4s Sates eitetd DME eke ek eee ean 68 
MOLEC TA TTIGS yf ch al ehctaret o\ a5, eh Aa as or ehiels Shite a bls Coa 69 


10 


Eeonomie Geology (Continued) 
VAUR) «Deere Mr Oe eo RR etm 
Historical sketch 
Distribution so. 50ers see Soares bsece es Bale aoa we Fou dar ees l'ase a ee 
Character> and Composition . oS... 0% dc. ~ «+vse oie © = 2 ce 
QGCULTENCE os oe ve viene ole these 6» nu ae tech Stee b,cstue claw acs shone nese ann 
Origin 
Mining 
Malling ocak ap ace stake Miceye opeite a; oy eiete, oeieoe A aye ella plate et at iee eine ane 
Outlook for future development 
FANG WINES is ee boo ele ta hs ee one Gee Bee nT ei eae 


ee 8 0 80 ob 0 @ 0 8,8 6 6 8 6 6 8 8 8 ee 8 8 fe 6 et 6 Ce Oe ee 6 SC 8 6 8 6 Os 6 6 6) oy pie eee eee 


@ 0 © 6 6 8 C18 6 6 e166 8 8 oe 6. 8H ee € 6 Oe ee 8 8s ale 6 ols ea) 6 O pte el eee One ae ne 


Bibliography 
COPPer oc cc cdc cee c Gewese bdlv ee ged sb we eis og 0 cn 9/0 le Snel 
Manganese 
Gold 


© 6 © © 8 6 68 © 6 wee BNO € @ 8 ee 0 8 eee te 6 6 6 6 66, 6 68 Selene) 5 eee ne ee eonnne 


een ewae eee qees 6 80 ee Co 6 wp ee he So He 6 ee ee Oe Ue 86 6 Se Signe ea eer ur eee 
eoeeceecoeoee se ee Cece eoes eCeoeveee ec hee 8 06 6 8 6 8 6 6 8 0 6 oe 6G 6 68) © 6.18) Cie ee e eens enn 


Historical sketch 
Cement. materials .. 1.6.0 s+ eve eo coe © oo 0 old oleie oy nen 
Cement rock ooo. cca cee be wl wine a Coen) ale nl ee ee ieee naan 
Cement limestone ..... . os cu-e chs sales.» due oes e ooeeeiely anne nnn 
Other materials for making cement 
Limestones 
Clay 
Materials from other regions used by local cement companies 
Cement plants .. ..... sos acu oieteuerelelgehtctans wlekele: roltel a: pyeiehe ta ets ene a a aan 
Atlas Portland Cement Co 
Bath Portland Cement’ Ce (a0 v7 Jo... es se ee 
Coplay Cement Manufacturing Co 
Dexter Portland Cement Co 


© 0 0 6 0 6 @ 6 6 0 8 6 6s Oe a) Oe 2 eee 
ececevtece eee beCaeeteen eee 6 6 & 0 6 6 e 8 68) © es whe Sele erenmeee 


Oeececeovnveeeveveee eevee eee eee ev ee 6 68 e 6 as £ @ 6 6 Seer en ener 


e@onngece Coes 9 & oe 8 w 8 0 © 6 we 6 6 6 ew eee 


Ce KC ee 8 oO 6 aS te Ss « fs le ee eee 
ees een ee £ ¢ 6 6b 6 © ® Sa) @ ole eens! on eene 
pee esse ee 6 06 6 4 8 6 we © tl ae ee ere 
oo 00 6 © 8 0 6 8 8 © © 8 © 6 ells oe) @ a wee een 
cee eecevns nw ce 6 8 6 we 6 6 6 6 Oe ne 6 ie bole eh alent 


eo a0 6 6 @ 6 BD © Ce 6 % Oe ig oe ee a) ee ee 


Pennsylvania Cement: Go) o.4 so. 5 0% «cle seve erect een 
Phoenix Portland Cement Co 
Quarry methods 


@ 6 0 © @ © © © 6 @ le 5 0 Shs, we) 5 ele a eae en ara 


o 6 © 8 6 © 8 6 Oe 6 ee 8 Ore © Be © 80 oe 8 em 6 ‘oe: \6) 60 Ue 6 0 Cl igte mel elalealtwaiane 


Methods of Portland cement manufacture 
Economie considerations 
Building stones 
Limestones 
Sandstones 
Gneisses 
Diabase 
SST tes 2% cansisge! oiein ces olla sn beneilll npai 0. 0s SEA eUMMRIIMEIEEE BP a7 osc. po kl re a ean 
General characteristics of the Martinsburg shale 
Slate? deposits’... 2.5.50. 0.50 Failte pew «<0 0s eps pie wis ook e > Gor ne 
Distribution 


Co ee 0 © © 6 & 6. 6 © ie te Oe 6) 60) 6 er ene 
eooerc ate eee eee ee o.e o © oe ore 6 © 6 6 Ss 6) 6 Sie 6 ele 8 soe 
© 00 © 0 © © 0 06 6 0 6 6 6 6 8 pie © 6 6 6 8 ©) 6 0 0 & 6 @ 618 oe 6 el ate Gene 
Ce ee eS Se CO uC a eC ee OO TO Qe 
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Eeonomie Geology (Continued) Page. 
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Water in the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones........... 179 
Water in the Cambrian sandstones and quartzites........... 182 
Water in the pre-Cambrian: gneisses « ... cca tee cc ewe 182 
Water in the Triassic shales, sandstones, and conglomerates .. 183 
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PLATE T. 


Vie 


FIGURE 1. 


a 


12 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Pa. 


sae ec cen vewmeees eo © 06 26 66 66 8 6 2 6 0 ee 8 68 He S66 e) ee 


Map of Allentown quadrangle, showing 
raphy 
Map of Allentown quadrangle, Pa., showing areal and 
economic geology 
Map showing magnetic survey of area in vicinity of 
Vera Cruz, Lehigh County, Pa. 
Map showing locations and developments of the Fried- 
ensville zine mines 
Views showing Ueberroth zine mine, Friedensville, Pa. 
A, View of mine while in operation, about 1877; B, 
Recent view of mine 
A, Cement rock in quarry of Bath Portland Cement 
Co., showing crumpling and numerous veins of eal- 
cite and quartz; B, Limestone breccia, Old Hartman 
mine, Wriedensville; Panto. svete ete weenie sc eee ee 
Plant of Atlas Portland Cement Co., Northampton, 
| <d:; eI A ie A 
Quarry of Atlas Portland Cement Co., Northampton, 
| Sf: ae Pe Pas ee PR oe Ne bith De ey 
Plant of Bath Portland Cement Co., Bath, Pa. ...... 
A, Loading cement rock at quarry face; B, Remains 
of some of the first kilns used for the manufacture of 


topog- 


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eoceceereeveere ee eee eee e ese eeer eee e 


eerereere ese ee ee eee eee sees eee 


Portland cement in the region, at Coplay, Pa. .... 
Plant of Dexter Portland Cement Co., Nazareth, Pa. 
Slate fence posts ‘near Bath, Pas io. ta. ee ee 
Witte umber pit, 2 miles northeast of Springtown .... 
Detweiler peat deposit, at Quaker Hill, Pa. ........ 


Index map showing location of the Allentown quad- 
rangle 
Map of underground workings of the Wharton iron 
mine, Hellertown, Pa. 


oeeeerereee ee eee eee eee eee ewe eee eee ee ee eee ee & 


Page. 
In pocket 
In pocket 
In pocket 


In pocket 


92 


104 
115 
116 
118 


120 
121 
154 
156 
163 


13 


61. 


Mineral Resources of the Allentown Quadrangle, 
Pennsylvania 


By BENJAMIN LERoy MILLER. 


INTRODUCTION. 


GENERAL RELATIONS. 


The Allentown quadrangle covers an area of 226.73 square miles 
in eastern Pennsylvania, lying between parallels 40° 30’ and 40° 45’ 
and meridians 75° 15’ and 75° 30’. It includes parts of Lehigh, 
Northampton, and Bucks counties. The quadrangle is named from 
the principal city within it. See Plate I in pocket. 













































































20 [e} 20 40 60 MILES 
el 








Figure 1. Index map showing location of Allentown quadrangle. 


(13) 


14 


CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 

The mean annual temperature of the region is about 51°. In the 
more elevated areas the summer is not marked by so great extremes 
of heat as those that prevail in the valleys, the night temperatures 
in particular being notably lower. Frosts come later in the autumn 
on the hills and on the ridges of the mountains than in the adjoining 
valleys. In most years there are no frosts that injure vegetation 
long before October, and in some there are no severe frosts before 
November. 

The prevailing winds are from the west; in the summer they are 
from the southwest or south of west, and in the winter from north of 
west and northwest. 

The average annual rainfall in the region is about 45 inches. In 
ordinary dry years it falls as low as.35 inches and in wet years it 
reaches 55 inches or more. The rainfall is almost equally distributed 
between the seasons, though there is a slight excess in the summer— 
28 per cent as against 24 per cent for each of the other seasons. The 
heaviest average rainfall is in June, July, and August—over 4 inches 
in each month—owing to the prevalence of summer thunderstorms. 
February is the driest month, the average precipitation for that 
month being about 8.20 inches. 

The Great Valley, the Valley of Saucon Creek, and the Triassic 
lowland have been largely deforested, and the remaining timber is 
chiefly in scattered woodlots. The mountains are well wooded, and 
over 50 per cent of the area is still in timber, all second growth. 
The ridges that rise above the lowland are mostly forested. 

The forests of eastern Pennsylvania and northern New Jersey are 
of the mixed hardwood type, the chief components being rock oak, 
white oak, red oak, hickory, maple, elm, and beech. Within the last 
few years the chestnut trees have been killed by the chestnut blight. 
Conifers are represented by pitch pine and white pine, which occupy 
the thinnest soils on the ridges; by red cedar in old fields or openings, 
and by hemlock and black spruce in moist ground. By repeated un- 
regulated cutting and to some extent by fires the productive value 
of the forest has become low, but it is being restored by degrees 
through the growing disposition of the owners to practice forestry, 
and a better forest is in prospect. 


CULTURE. 


All parts of the quadrangle are rather thickly populated except 
the steeper slopes of the several mountainous areas, yet even the 
highest and most rugged mountains and hills afford sites for numer- 
ous houses, especially where the tops are moderately level, and many - 


15 


farmhouses are built on steep slopes. Probably few places within 
the quadrangle are more than half a mile distant from the nearest 
residence. Except a few summer homes that stand on the tops of the 
mountains all the houses have been built for permanent use. The 
limestone belts, particularly the: Great Valley, are most thickly in- 
habited, containing practically all the cities and towns, and the 
farming districts within the limestone regions are likewise more 
densely settled than those in the areas of gneiss and shale. | 

The principal cities and towns of the Allentown quadrangle are 
Allentown, Bethlehem, Catasauqua, Nazareth, Bath, Northampton, 
Siegfried, Coplay, Hokendauqua, Fullerton, Emaus, Hellertown, 
Ireemansburg, Springtown, Spring Valley, Center Valley, Coopers- 
burg, and Limeport.- There are, besides the above, about 25 smaller 
villages that range from 50 to 500 in population. With the exception 
of Coopersburg all the towns named are underlain entirely or in 
part by limestone. Nearly all are in the Great Valley or in offshoots 
Olsit. 

The quadrangle is covered with a network of highways that renders 
nearly all parts of it readily accessible. In the Great Valley the 
roads run in all directions, with little regard to the drainage lines. 
In other parts of the quadrangle, where the differences in clevation 
between the stream divides and the stream channels are greater, the 
roads follow either the divides or the valleys. In the belt of Martins- 
burg shale in the northwestern portion of the quadrangle and in the 
regions underlain by Triassic shale in the southern portion of the 
quadrangle the greater number of main roads follow the divides, but 
in the areas of gneiss, where the crests of the stream divides are 
more irregular and the tops of the mountains less well adapted for 
cultivation, most of the roads follow the valleys. Most of the roads 
in the valleys and the main roads across the mountains are good, 
a number of them having been rebuilt in. recent years according to 
modern principies of road engineering. On the other hand, a few 
mountain roads have steep grades and rough surfaces and are im- 
passable for any but the lightest vehicles. 

Several main lines of railroad cross the quadrangle and branch 
lines reach nearly all parts of it. The ‘Lehigh Valley Railroad and the 
Central Railroad of New Jersey traverse the entire width of the quad- 
rangle, following the banks of Lehigh River from the northwestern 
portion of the quadrangle to Easton and thence continuing eastward 
to New York. The Lehigh Valley Railroad also operates a branch 
line that follows Bushkill Creek from Easton to Stockertown. The 
Philadelphia & Reading Railway operates three branch lines witli 
the Allentown quadrangle—one traversing the Saucon Valley between 
Bethlehem and Philadelphia, one extending from Allentown to Read- 
ing, and the other from Allentown southward through the Perkiomeu 
Valley. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad has a branch 





16 


line that traverses the cement region of the northern portion of the 
quadrangle. The Lehigh & New England Railroad has a line that fol- 
lows Monocacy Creek north from Bethlehem and another that extends 
from Allentown northeastward through the cement belt. A short 
line of railroad not now in use extends from Riegelsville across the 
southeast corner of the Allentown quadrangle to Quakertown, pass- 
ing near Springtown and Pleasant Valley. 

Besides the steam lines there are numerous trolley lines that connect 
nearly all the towns of the quadrangle with towns and cities outside 
the quadrangle, such as Philadelphia, Reading, Slatington, Bangor, 
and Delaware Water Gap. The following cities and towns are con- 
nected by trolleys: Allentown, Fullerton, Catasauqua, Northampton, 
Siegfried, Emaus, Mountainville, Center Valley, Coopersburg, Seiders- 
ville, Colesville, Friedensville, Aineyville, Rittersville, Bethlehem, 
Hellertown, Freemansburg, Butztown, Farmersville, Brodhead, New- 
burg, Nazareth, Bath, and Tatamy. Some of these places are con- 
nected by two lines. Two lines extend from Allentown to Easton, 
one passing through Bethlehem and Farmersville, and the other on 
the south side of Lehigh River through Bethlehem and Shimersville 
to Freemansburg. 

A canal owned and operated iby the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Co. 
follows Lehigh River across the Allentown quadrangle to Easton and 
thence down the Delaware. It was built in 1824 and is still operated 
for the transportation of anthracite from the coal regions to the 
manufacturing towns along Lehigh and Delaware rivers. Several 
dams have been built in Lehigh River to divert water into the canal; 
the main ones within the quadrangle are at Allentown and Island 
Park. In some places the canal boats use the river for short dis- 
tances. 

Agriculture is the chief occupation of the rural part of the popula- 
tion, and practically every part of the quadrangle is under cultiva- 
tion with the exception of the rugged gneiss hills. The principal 
crops are wheat, corn, hay, oats, barley, and potatoes. 

In some places there is considerable dairying. In the limestone 
valleys farm land ranges from $75 to $150 an acre, but elsewhere the 
value is considerably less. 

The steep gneiss hills are covered with timber which has been cut 
over several times but annually produces considerable lumber. 

The urban population is primarily engaged in the manufacturing 
industries. The manufacture of cement, which is the chief industry of 
the quadrangle, exclusive of farming, is centered in a belt that ex- 
tends from Nazareth to Coplay. Limestone and other quarries are 
also extensively operated, and formerly the slate quarries and the 
iron and zinc mines made a large production. Blast furnaces and 
steel plants in several towns date from the period when iron was ex- 
tensively mined in the region. The manufacture of textile products is 


7 


an important industry, and silk and knitting mills are located in al- 
most every town and city. Numerous other manufacturing establish- 
ments make a wide range of products—machinery, wire, nails, coke, 
clothing, flour, cigars, and other articles. With the exception of the 
cement and other industries that depend upon quarry products, no 
relation exists between the manufacturing industries and the geology 
of the region except as the geologic conditions determine easy routes 
for transportation. The proximity to the coal regions and to the 
great centers of population and industry have been the chief fac- 
tors in the industrial development of the region. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 





The Allentown quadrangle includes parts of the three divisions of 
the Appalachian province. The northern portion lies within the 
Kittatinny or Great Valley; the central and south-central portions 
constitute part of the Appalachian Mountains or Highlands; and the 
southeastern portion lies within the Piedmont Plateau. 

All the larger topographic features of the quadrangle are the result 
of long-continued erosion, which acted on rocks of different structure 
and texture and of different degrees of resistance, in several geologic 
periods, during which the land stood at different altitudes above sea 
level. 

RELIEF. 


Kittatinny or Great Valley. 


The Kittatinny or Great Valley, which includes more than half of 
the Allentown quadrangle, is occupied by belts of limestone and shale 
that in general trend northeastward. With few exceptions the lime- 
stones, owing to their less resistant character, occupy the greater 
depression. This arrangement is so uniform that a fairly accurate 
geologic map could be prepared on the basis of the topography alone, 
as is well shown by the rocks at Bath, which is located at the contact 
of the limestone and the shale and slate of the Martinsburg formation, 
the hills being formed of the shale and slate, whereas the broad lower- 
lying plain to the south is underlain by the limestone. 

The general surface of the belt of shale which occupies the north- 
west portion of the Allentown quadrangle is a rolling plateau that is 
trenched by streams and everywhere so much eroded that its plateau 
character is obscured and in some places obliterated, though it is 
evident in the vicinity of Seemsville and in the flat-topped hills north 
and northwest of Bath. These comparatively level areas, which have 
an altitude of 600 to 760 feet above sea level, are the remnants of an 
old peneplain that was formed during the Tertiary period and that 
has been named the Harrisburg peneplain from its typical develop- 

2B 


18 


ment in the Susquehanna valley near Harrisburg. The region under- 
lain by the shale has been greatly dissected by streams that have cut 
narrow, steep-sided valleys to depths of 200 to 3800 feet below the 
former level. In the development of streams there seems to have been 
little regularity, and the hills are of various sizes and shapes. They 
present the greatest similarity in the steep slopes and the smooth and 
flowing outlines that are characteristic of shale belts. 

The surface of the hills formed by the belt of shale ranges from 
560 to 840 feet above sea level. The greatest elevation is near Dan- 
nersville, and from that point there is a general slope to the south. 
The old plateau surface was far from level, but it was much less hilly 
than the present surface, and its average altitude was about 200 feet 
below that of the bordering uplands. 

The limestone belts are marked by irregular hills and ridges, similar 
in general features to those of the shale belts but less pronounced. 
The hilltops are remnants of a former plain that stood 200 to 350 feet 
below that marked by the tops of the hills formed by the shale. The 
rock terraces bordering the meandering Hokendauqua Creek in the 
northwestern part of the quadrangle, within the shale belt, may be 
correlated with this surface, but in general it has not been recognized 
in the Great Valley except in the limestone areas. i 

The average altitude of the limestone hills is about 400 feet above 
sea level. The tops of these hills are fairly level, and they form the 
remnants of a late Tertiary peneplain which has long been called the 
Somerville peneplain, from Somerville, N. J., but as this name has 
been used for several different peneplains it is proposed to substitute 
the term “Swarthmore” for the peneplain so well represented in the 
limestone areas of this quadrangle. 

In detail the relief of the limestone belts presents strong contrasts 
to that of the shale belts. The surface is rolling, and few steep 
slopes occur except along some of the streams, where jagged out- 
crops of limestone form nearly vertical cliffs of moderate height. 
Streams are less numerous, and the entire region is much less dis- 
sected. | 

In a few places steep hills of small size rise abruptly above the 
surrounding country, such as the 440-foot hill 1 mile northwést of 
Shoenersville, but these are exceptional. The limestone belts are 
also characterized by sinks or depressions. These sinks differ 
ereatly in size and shape; some of them are 20 to 50 feet deep, nearly — 
circular, and steep sided, but others are mere shallow saucer-shaped 
depressions. Small streams flow into a few of these depressions and 
disappear underground; others are occupied ‘by swamps or small 
ponds, but most of these ponds are small and contain water only for 
a few hours after rains. 

Within the limestone belt there are two small hills—Quaker Hill 
and Pine Top, about 24 miles north of Bethlehem—that belong geo- 


hy 


logically to the Appalachian Mountains. They owe their present 
elevation to a pronounced fault that bounds the hills on the north. 


The Appalachian Mountains. 


The Appalachian Mountains, known as the Highlands in New Jersey 
and ag South Mountain, Durham Hills, or Reading Hills in Pennsyl- 
vania, form a belt of rugged hills that extends diagonally across the 
Allentown quadrangle. Lehigh River, which flows along the north 
flank of these hills between Allentown and Easton, sharply divides 
them from the limestone belt of the Great Valley. Some small areas 
of limestone occur on the south side of the river, but they do not 
materially alter the topographic characteristics. The district is in 
general a plateau of erosion which is formed by resistant rocks and 
which has a fairly uniform altitude, ranging from 1,000 feet above 
sea level in the northeastern to about 800 feet in the southwestern 
part of the quadrangle. The plateau, however, is so intersected by 
valleys that in many places it loses its plateau character and is made 
up of flat-topped, steep-sided ridges that trend northeastward and 
are separated by valleys from 1 to 3 miles wide. So completely are 
the hills interrupted by these valleys and so widely are the parts 
separated that the divisions have received distinct names, such as 
South Mountain and Hexenkopf Hill. 

The flat-topped mountains of the Appalachians represent the rem- 
nants of the Schooley peneplain. Probably the tops of some of the 
mountains have been lowered very little below the level of the old 
peneplain, as they conform very closely to the elevations where large 
portions of the old peneplain still remain, as in New Jersey. 

The northeastward-trending intermountain valleys which break 
the Appalachians into separate mountain masses range in width 
from half a mile to 6 miles. The extreme width is attained only 
through the merging of several of these valleys which in their upper 
courses are separated by mountain ridges. The valley drained by 
Saucon Creek and known as Saucon Valley is the best example of 
such valleys in the Allentown quadrangle. 

The bottoms of these valleys are by no means level, yet when com. 
pared with the slopes and heights of the bordering uplands, they 
can be properly termed flat-bottomed. 


Piedmont Plateau. 


The southeastern portion of the Allentown quadrangle includes 
portions of the Piedmont Plateau. 'The surface as a whole is con- 
siderably lower than that of the Appalachian Mountains, but the 
two districts are not everywhere sharply separated. With ‘the ex- 
ception of a few hills of pre-Cambrian and Cambrian rocks, such 
as those south and southeast of Springtown, the Piedmont. Plateau 
of this quadrangle is composed of rocks of Triassic age. 


20 


The surface has a general southeastward slope but shows con- 
siderable diversity in altitude, ranging from 400 to 600 feet above 
sea level. ; 

The uplands present a gently rolling surface which has few an- 
gular prominences. Although somewhat lower than the remnants 
of the Harrisburg peneplain in the northwestern portion of the 
Allentown quadrangle they are referred to the same period of pene- 
planation. The two areas, although not related geologically, are 
strikingly similar in their lithologic and topographic characteristics. 

Within the Piedmont Plateau area are two hills whose crests 
stand at altitudes closely concordant with that of the southeastern 
margin of the dissected plateau of the Appalachians, to which they 
belong physiographically, though geographically and geologically 
they are a part of the Piedmont area. These hills are the flint hill 
south of Leithsville and the diabase hill 1 mile southwest of Fair- 
mount. They owe their greater altitude to the more resistant rocks 
that compose them, in comparison with the shales and shaly sand- 
stones that constitute the greater portion of the rocks of the Pied- 
mont Plateau of this region. 


DRAINAGE. 


With the exception of small areas in the northeast and southeast 
corners the Allentown quadrangle is drained by Lehigh River and 
its tributaries. Bushkill Creek, a tributary of Delaware River, 
drains a small region in the northeastern portion, and the head- 
waters of Durham Creek, also a tributary of the Delaware, drain 
the region around Spring'town. 

Lehigh River enters the Allentown quadrangle a mile above Coplay 
and flows southeastward to Allentown, thence east-northeastward 
across the quadrangle, uniting with Delaware River at Easton, Pa., 
approximately 23 miles below Coplay. It receives the drainage of 
about seven-eighths of Allentown quadrangle. The Lehigh rises in 
Wayne County and has a drainage area of approximately 1,375 
square miles. Where it enters the quadrangle it has an elevation 
of 280 feet above sea level and where it empties into the Delaware an 
elevation slightly less than 180 feet. The average fall in this reach 
is therefore somewhat less than 4% feet to the mile. Low dams 
have been built in the river at Allentown and Island Park for the 
purpose of diverting water into the canal of the Lehigh Coal & Navyi- 
gation Co. As small barriers have been built across the river at 
several other places, there are few natural rapids. 

Although Lehigh River within the quadrangle is confined entirely 
to the limestones of the Great Valley it is bordered by bluffs through- 
out much of its course. Few of these exceed 100 feet in height, 


¢ 21 


although in a few places where the river strikes the gneiss hills 
the south side of the valley rises rather precipitously to a height 
of more than 400 feet above the river. Vertical cliffs of limestone 
alternate with grass-covered slopes or narrow alluvial plains and 
apparently have little relation to the bends in the river. Steep 
bluffs may occur on both the inner and the outer curves of the 
river bends and also where the river flows in a nearly straight course, 
and the same principle applies to the gentle slopes and to a some- 
what less degree to the bordering flood plains. 

The fiood plains that border Lehigh River are discontinuous and 
narrow and in few places rise as much as 20 feet above the river. 
The most prominent exception is the flood plain on the south side 
of the river about 115 miles west of Bethlehem, portions of which 
rise approximately 30 feet above the river. The topographic map 
shows ten islands in the Lehigh within the confines of the quad- 
rangle, but one of these, Calypso Island, at Bethlehem, has been 
joined by artificial excavation and filling to the south bank. 
The islands are low and are composed entirely of river alluvium. 
They are rather heavily wooded and afford pleasant picnic grounds; 
Smith Island, known as Island Park, is the site of a summer resort. 

The chief tributaries of Lehigh River within the quadrangle in 
order downstream are Hokendauqua, Coplay, Catasauqua, Jordan, 
Monocacy, and Saucon creeks. All these streams flow through lime- 
stone areas and have a low gradient. A few small unnamed streams 
that enter the river from the gneiss areas below Freemansburg have 
much greater fall and are characterized by small cascades. 

Hokendauqua Creek, in the northwest corner of the quadrangle, 
is confined almost entirely to the belt of Ordovician shales and 
slates, and it exhibits the characteristics of the larger creeks that 
drain this region. It is a meandering stream that has well-developed 
flood plains about 200 feet below the level of the uplands. The 
valley slopes are steep yet smooth and rounded, with few outcrops 
of rock. The lower 214 miles of its course is through argillaceous 
limestone. The stream becomes less winding, the steep rounded 
slopes of the valley change to gentle grass-covered surfaces on the 
inner curves of the stream bends, and nearly vertical cliffs of jagged 
limestone border the creek on the outer sides of the bends. 

Catasauqua and Monocacy creeks, the upper courses of which are 
eonfined to the slate belt whereas their major portions are included 
in the limestones of the Great Valley, present characteristics similar 
to those of Hokendauqua Creek, though both streams, especially the 
Monoeacy. show striking dissimilarities in the number and char- 
acter of their tributaries in the slate and limestone belts. The 
tributaries in the slate belt are numerous, have many branches and 
steep gradients, and flow in narrow, steep V-shaped valleys, but the 
tributaries in the limestone belt are few and flow in broad, open 


22 : 


valleys little lower than the surrounding country. From the north 
margin of the quadrangle to Bath the Monocacy flows through the 
slate belt, and in that distance—about 2 miles—it receives six tribu- 
tary streams sufficiently large to be represented on ‘the map, whereas 
in the 12 miles from Bath to Bethlehem through the limestone re- 
gion it receives only two tributaries sufficiently large ‘to be repre- 
sented. North of Bethlehem Monocacy Creek shows good examples 
of intrenched meanders, where the stream is depressed about 100 
feet below the surrounding region. 

Jordan Creek and its main tributary, Little Lehigh Creek, which 
enters it from the southwest near its mouth, drains a portion of the 
Allentown quadrangle and a much larger region to the west. Numer- 
ous springs contribute largely to these streams. Bordering lime- 
stone cliffs furnish excellent facilities for quarrying which have been 
utilized. The best example of an entrenched stream meander within 
the quadrangle is along Jordan Creek near the western margin of the 
quadrangle. 

Saucon Creek, which drains Saucon Valley, in which Hellertown, 
Friedensville, and other small towns are situated, rises a short dis- 
tance south of Limeport, outside the quadrangle, and flows northeast- 
ward about 15 miles to its junction with the Lehigh at Shimersville. 
It receives numerous tributary streams from the surrounding higher — 
regions. Throughout the greater part of its course it flows in a broad 
open valley and has low banks. Limestone bluffs border the stream 
in only a few places between Bingen and Iron Hill. Although there 
are numerous bends in Saucon Creek it is a fairly swift stream and 
has an average gradient of more than 20 feet to the mile. 

Bushkill Creek, which flows alternately in the Allentown and 
Easton quadrangles, has its source in the slate area north of the 
Allentown quadrangle and flows in a winding course southeastward, 
southward, and eastward, into Delaware River at Easton. Northwest 
of Tatamy it is in an open valley, which becomes more constricted in 
its lower course where it is bordered by steep bluffs that rise 200 feet 
above the creek. 

In certain parts of the quadrangle the drainage bears a close rela- 
tion to the geology, whereas in other parts it seems to bear little or no 
relation. The relations depend primarily on the character of the 
rocks and secondarily on structural features; these conditions de- 
termine the number of streams, their location, their direction of 
flow, the nature of the divides, and the characteristics of the valleys. 

The number of streams in the limestone belts is small in comparison 
with those in the shale and gneiss areas. North of Lehigh River on 
either side of Monocacy Creek, within the Great Valley, there are 
areas 4 miles wide which contain no streams. In such regions prac- 
tically all the rainfall passes through the soil into porous and cavern- 
ous limestones. Small sinkholes, few of which are more than 15 feet 


23 


deep, are characteristic of the limestone belt of the Great Valley. 
None of these sinks have caverns open at the surface, yet the water 
that flows into them passes downward so quickly that the land is 
marshy in but few places and can be cultivated like other areas. The 
only exception is the sink 1? miles east of Brodhead, which con- 
tains water. Advantage is taken of these underground lines of drain- 
age in disposal of sewage. Although more than 100,000 people live . 
in the towns of the limestone belts of this quadrangle, only a small 
proportion of the residences are connected with the municipal sew- 
age systems, which have been built mainly for the purpose of receiv- 
ing storm water. Holes are sunk into the cavernous limestones, 
through which the sewage flows probably in well-defined channels. 
Occasionally stoppage of these channels necessitates the sinking of 
new holes. 

Where soluble rocks, such as limestones, are found in the quad- 
rangle in close association with relatively insoluble rocks, such as the 
gneisses and shales, the streams usually flow on the more soluble 
rocks. This is well shown by Saucon Creek, East Branch of Saucon 
Creek, Durham Creek, which flows through Springtown, and es- 
pecially by Lehigh River between Allentown and Easton. 

Structural features seem to have influenced the location of several 
streams. Anticlines and synclines seem to have little effect, but 
faults have undoubtedly determined the location of some streams. 
Examples of such influence are the upper course of Saucon Creek 
near Limeport, the lower course of the same stream west of Iron Hill, 
the small stream half a mile north of Vera Cruz, a small stream that 
enters Lehigh River opposite the former site of Calypso Island, and 
the stream that enters Saucon Creek from the east half a mile south 
of Hellertown. 


DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY. 


STRATIGRAPHY. 


General character of the rocks. 


The stratigraphy of the Allentown quadrangle is considered only 
to the extent that seems necessary in order to give a correct apprecia- 
tion of the economic mineral products contained in the formations. 
The descriptions, as well as the data on the accompanying map 
(Pl. II), are generalized. For example, under the general head of 
eneisses are included igneous and sedimentary gneisses and schists 
of five different kinds, together with some small intrusions of pegma- 


24 


tite, gabbro, and diabase. The Cambrian and Ordovician dolomitic 
limestones are also separable into three distinct formations. For the 
consideration of the economic geology however there is no necessity 
for making these separations. 

The rocks of the Allentown quadrangle range in age from the most 
ancient known to the ones forming today, as shown in the table below. 
Rocks of many ages are lacking but a number of geologic periods 
are represented by the strata exposed in the region. 


Generalized geologic column of the Allentown quadrangle. 
































Age Kinds of rocks Thickness 
(feet) 
Recent | Alluvium along streams. 0-40 
Quater- |—— $$. 
nary Pleisto- | Gravels, sands, and boulder clay, 0-40 
cene 
Triassic Red shales, sandstones, and conglomerates into which dia- 1, 200+ 
base has been intruded. 
Black shales and slates that locally contain beds of brown 1,000+ . 
sandstone and lenses of limestone (Martinsburg serge ok 
Ordovician Black argillaceous limestone (cement rock). 400 
Gray limestones, low in magnesium (cement limestone). 200 
Ordovician and | Dolomitie limestones. 3,500+- 
Cambrian 
Cambrian Sandstones and conglomerates, locally metamorphosed into 20-300 
quartzites (Hardyston quartzite). 
Crystalline graphitic limestone and schists. 150+ 
Pre-Cambrian ——— —_—— 
Gneisses of both igneous and sedimentary origin which form (?) 
the basal complex. 








Pre-Cambrian Gneisses. 


The oldest rocks in the region consist of the metamorphic rocks 
that form the highest hills or mountains of the southern half of the 
quadrangle. These rocks are light-colored gneisses that are composed 
mainly of feldspar and quartz together with minor quantities of horn- 
blende, mica, pyroxene, ilmenite, magnetite, and pyrite. Many of 
them are prominently banded. These rocks, which are the most 
abundant gneisses of the region, have been greatly decomposed in 
many places and yield much sand that has been widely used for 
building. The light-colored gneisses are believed to have been orig- 
inally igneous. 


25 


Another prominent type of gneiss is dark and is composed of 
plagioclase feldspar, hornblende, and pyroxene, together with small 
amounts of other minerals. Almost everywhere these rocks are 
decidedly banded. This type of gneiss is well developed in the region 
of Hexenkopf Hill, where much of the feldspar has been converted 
into epidote. 

Gneisses of sedimentary origin in which graphite is a prominent 
constituent, quartz sericite schists, and garnetiferous gneisses also 
occur in several places. 


In many places there are small dikes of pegmatite, most of which 
are very small and can not be mapped, as the only indication of their 
presence consists of small pieces of loose pegmatitic rock on the hill 
slopes. Some small intrusions of diabase and gabbro are also present, 
the diabase occurring in small masses only. 


The gneisses are extremely old and have been subjected to compres- 
sion and heat so many times that they have had their original char- 
acters greatly altered. If the gneisses of sedimentary origin ever 
contained any fossils all traces of them have been lost in the meta- 
morphic changes which they have undergone. 


Although the gneisses are the oldest rocks of the region and form 
the basement on which the other rocks have been deposited they 
now appear at the surface in the highest hills, where through folding 
or faulting they have been more elevated than in the surrounding 
regions. Other rocks which covered them have been removed by 
erosion. It is certain that the gneisses underlie all portions of the 
quadrangle, although in most places they are so far beneath the 
surface that they have never been reached by drilling. 


Pre-Cambrian Crystalline Graphitic Limestone. 


In two places in the quadrangle, along Monocacy Creek west of 
Pine Top and at the margin of the quadrangle southeast of Walters, 
there are small areas of coarsely crystalline limestones that contain 
flakes of graphite. These limestones are closely associated with 
graphitic schists, but their value is so great that they are shown on 
the map as distinct areas, even though these areas contain some bands 
of graphite schist. These limestones are similar to the Franklin 
limestone of New Jersey. They represent calcareous sediments that 
accumulated in the old pre-Cambrian sea and later were so greatly 
metamorphosed that they have become far more coarsely crystalline 
than ordinary marble. The thickness of these rocks has not been 
determinined, as no drilling has been done in them and all bedding 
planes have been obliterated during metamorphism, but it is be- 
lieved that they approximate 150 feet in thickness in this region. 


26 
Cambrian Sandstones and Conglomerates. 


Overlying the gneisses and cropping out between them and the 
limestones in all places where there has been no faulting is a series 
of beds of pebbly conglomerates or fine-grained siliceous sandstones 
with some interbedded shales, especially in the upper portion of the 
formation. In many places these rocks have undergone remarkable 
changes in form, during which they have altered to yellow, taffy- 
colored chert or, by replacement, to pyrite or limonite ore. Between 
the gneiss and the sandstones or conglomerates in many places is 
considerable green pinite rock. The thickness of the formation, which 
is known as the Hardyston quartzite, ranges from about 20 feet along 
the north slope of the mountain east of the Freemansburg bridge to 
about 300 feet near Emaus. Fossils consisting of worm borings have 
been found in several places. 


Cambrian and Ordovician Dolomitic Limestones. 


A great thickness of magnesian limestones underlies the valleys 
and forms the surface rocks of almost half the quadrangle. These 
rocks have been greatly folded and faulted, so that their structural 
relations are in many places too complicated to be determined with 
the present exposures. The limestones are prevailingly high in mag- 
nesium carbonate although in places certain strata have so little that 
they can be used for Portland cement. Near the base the rocks are 
somewhat thinly bedded, but the upper strata are fairly massive. 

By means of fossils and lithologic differences these rocks have been 
divided into three formations, two Cambrian and one Ordovician. 
There is little reason for their separation in this bulletin, as through- 
out the region limestone quarries have been opened at all horizons in 
these rocks. They have been extensively used for lime, flux, and road 
metal and to a lesser extent for cement. Deposits of limonite are 
found in clay pockets in these limestones in many places, and the 
zine ores at Friedensville are also contained in them. The clays that 
result from their decomposition are suitable for brick. 

The thickness of these magnesian limestones is difficult of determin- 
ation on account of their complex structure and the absence of any 
complete section through them, but it is believed to be approximately 
5,900 feet. 


Cement Limestone. 


A narrow band of high-grade limestones low in magnesium carbon- 
ate overlies the magnesian limestones in the northern part of the 
quadrangle, and one detached area occurs in the western part of 
Saucon Valley. These limestones are so generally used for cement 
that they are known as the cement limestones. They are about 200 
feet in thickness. Under the heading “Cement limestone” (p. 110) 
these rocks are fully described. 


i) 


Sf 


~ 


Cement Rock. 

The most important economic deposit of the quadrangle is the 
black argillaceous limestone known as “cement rock” that extends 
in a narrow band from Siegfried to Nazareth. The thickness is va- 
riable but is about 400 feet as a maximum. As this rock is used 
solely in the manufacture of cement a full description is given under 
the heading “Cement rock” (p. 102). 


Ordovician Black Shales and Slates (Martinsburg shale). 

The northwestern portion of the quadrangle is underlain by black 
shales and. slates of Ordovician age which are described in some 
detail under the heading ‘‘Slate” (p. 180). The rocks were laid down 
generally as deposits of mud in the Ordovician sea, but sand or cal- 
careous oozes formed in some places. By consolidation the muds 
formed shales, the deposits of sand became sandstones, and the cal- 
careous oozes became limestones. By intense compression the shales 
were metamorphosed into the slates which have been quarried in 
several places in the region. The total thickness of these shales and 
slates in eastern Pennsylvania is approximately 3,060 feet, but only 
about one-third of this thickness is represented in the Allentown 
quadrangle. 


Triassic Shales, Sandstones, and Conglomerates. 

In the southeastern part of the quadrangle is a considerable area 
of horizontal or gently inclined beds of generally red shales, sand- 
stones, and conglomerates. These beds were deposited during the 
Triassic period on rocks formed millions of years previous. The gap 
between the Ordovician and Triassic rocks in this region indicates 
that during a long interval of time the region probably stood above 
sea level and received no deposits or else that all strata formed dur- 
ing this interval were removed by erosion. 

Flint Hill, which is included in Bucks, Lehigh, and Northampton 
counties, best shows the conglomeratic phase of the Triassic; the red 
shales and sandstones are well developed in the vicinity of Pleasant 
Valley. Sandstones of this formation have been quarried locally, 
and traces of copper occur in a few places. The thickness of Trias- 
sic strata in this quadrangle is approximately 1,200 feet. 


Triassic Diabase. 

Compact gray to black diabase intruded within the shales and 
sandstones is common throughout the belt of Triassic rocks. In this 
region one area is present east of Coopersburg and another in the ex- 
treme southeast corner of the quadrangle. These are the youngest 
igneous rocks of the region and were poured out millions of years 
later than those included within the pre-Cambrian gneisses. These 
rocks furnish material for paving blocks, ballast, and crushed stone 
for building. 


28 


Glacial Deposits. 

During the Pleistocene epoch the region was invaded by an ice 
sheet that came from the northeast and extended over all except 
a few of the highest hills of the northern and central portions of ihe 
quadrangle but did not extend to the southern limits. The ice deposit- 
ed many cobbles and boulders and worked over the residual clays of 
the limestones. In places the water resulting from the melting of 
the ice sorted and deposited thick beds of sand and pebbles which 
have been worked for sand and gravel, and the reworked clays are 
serviceable for brick manufacture. The greatest known thickness 
of the glacial débris is about 140 feet. ; 


Recent Alluvium. 

Along the major streams of the region there are some flood-plain 
deposits that have accumulated during periods of high water. These 
deposits are chiefly valuable for agriculture, but in a few places 
some gravel and sand have been obtained from them. In no place are 
these deposits known to exceed 40 feet in thickness. 


GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE. 

The gneisses are most complex in their structure, as shown by the 
relations of the different kinds of rock to one another. Where bedding 
planes of the old sediments are obliterated, where igneous materials 
have been intruded and injected into the early rocks at different times, 
and where a complicated series of folds and faults is present, it is 
apparent that no satisfactory generalizations can be made, and there 
is considerable doubt in regard to some of the detailed explanations 
offered for particular areas. 

The Cambrian and Ordovician rocks in general dip to the north- 
west, so that younger and younger rocks are crossed in traveling in 
that direction from the gneiss hills. The Cambrian sandstones and 
conglomerates disappear by dipping to the northwest beneath the 
Cambrian and Ordovician magnesian limestones, which in turn dis- 
appear beneath the cement limestone, and the cement limestone dips 
under the cement rock, whereas the Ordovician shales and slates and 
the interbedded sandstones and limestones rest on the cement rock. 
Numerous symmetric and unsymmetric and overturned folds and 
both normal and thrust faults complicate the structure, so that the 
generalizations given can not be locally employed. J. P. Lesley’ 
describes this region in the following passage: 


It seems a very easy matter to obtain the knowledge which we want in so open, 
well-formed, almost level valley, bounded on one side by a mountain faced by a 
well-known rock underlying the limestone (Potsdam 8S. 8S. No. I) and on the other 
by hill slopes of unmistakable overlying slates (Hudson River, No. III). But what 
seems a facility turns out to be the principal difficulty. What seems so smooth 
and regular a surface conceals one of the most contorted, twisted, fractured cleft, 
plicated, complicated, and even overturned set of subsoil rocks in the world. 





1Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. D. p. 59, Harrisburg, 1875. 


29 


The Triassic sandstones were laid down after the great folding 
and faulting of the underlying rocks had taken place and have a 1inuch 
more simple structure. Low angles of dip prevail throughout the 
region. 

The glacial deposits are irregular in this quadrangle. They are 
thickest in the limestone areas and practically absent in the gneiss 
hills. In places the glacial deposits have been removed by erosion, 
so that they appear now in patches. 


ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 





IRON ORES. 


Although at the present time the iron ores of the Allentown quad- 
rangle are not being worked, they have been of the greatest -import- 
ance in the economic development of the region. For nearly 100 years 
the mining of iron was an extensive industry in this section and only 
within the last few yearg has it ceased entirely. The manufacture of 
iron and steel, which was started during the period when the iron 
mines were.in active operation, still continues to be one of the prin- 
cipal industries of the region, even though all the ore used now 
comes from Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, New York, New Jersey, 
Cuba, Chile, Sweden, Greece, and other places. The closing of the 
mines is due to several causes, among which the most important is 
the improvement of transportation facilities, which permits higher- 
gerade ores from other regions that can be procured in great quantities 
at low cost to compete with the local ores.. Though the ore in some 
mines was practically exhausted this condition does not apply to the 
greater number of the deposits. 


Historical Sketch. 


The history of the earliest development of the iron industry in 
eastern Pennsylvania is somewhat obscure. All records seem to 
indicate that the first iron ores used were the magnetite ores of Dur- 
ham, about 3 miles east of the Allentown quadrangle. These deposits 
‘seem to have been guarded by the Indians as early as 1698, which 
probably means that the early Dutch and Swedish traders had recog- 
nized their value. A tract of 5,000 acres containing the Durham 
iron deposits was part of William Penn’s purchase from the Indians 
and was surveyed by Jacob Taylor in 1701. There was a settlement 
on this tract as early as 1723, and it may be inferred that the deposits 
were operated at that date, although the first definite information 
obtainable is that a furnace was erected at Durham in 1727 and put 
in blast in the spring of 1728. With iron furnaces in operation so 
near the borders of the Allentown quadrangle it is probable that some 


30 


magnetite may have been mined in the hills in the eastern portion of 
the quadrangle, where ore of the same kind occurs in small quantities. 

A bloomery is said to have been built near Jacobsburg, a few miles 
north of Nazareth, in 1805 and another one in 1809, and both of them 
used local limonite ores, some of which probably came from mines 
within the Allentown quadrangle. In 1824 and 1825 Mather S. Henry 
erected a blast furnace north of Nazareth, which was put into opera- 
tion in May, 1825. He states that “the principal part of the ore used 
was the columnar or pipe species of hematite ore of Lower Mount 
Bethel Township, as also the brown hematite from Williams and 
Hanover townships in Northampton, and Whitehall in Lehigh 
counties’.” This is the first definite information regarding the use 
of the iron ores of the Allentown quadrangle. 

Between 1830 and 1840 many limonite ore mines were worked 
along the south side of Lehigh River between Easton and Bethlehem 
and in the vicinity of Emaus. The condition of the industry in the 
summer of 1840 is thus described :? 


About three miles westward from South Easton, a mine has been opened, at 
Jacob Woodring’s, in a hollow between two spurs of the primary chain. It was 
not wrought ‘at the time of our examination. The shaft here is said to be 90 feet 
deep, passing through diluvium and clay for 55 feet, before any ore was found. The 
ore is moderately rich, but contains some manganese. The limestone shows itself 
on the surface, about 300 yards north of the ore. Westward of these localities, sur- 
face signs of ore are abundant, as at IJhrie’s and Brotzman’s, half a mile south 
of the Lehigh. At Brotzman’s, where some manganese is associated with the ore, 
the diggings were made probably too high in the side of the hill, being apparently 
outside of the edge of the limestone. The ore here is rough and sandy, and con- 
tains compact black oxide of manganese in some abundance. A little hill, further 
west, on the same farm, lying within the limestone, shows a much better ore on 
the surface. On Richards’ farm, in the same range as Brotzman’s, but farther west, 
surface ore is quite abundant, some of it being fibrous hematite. The next farm 
westward, presents the same indications.. At the period of our exploration, the 
Lehigh Crane Iron company, whose works are situated on the Lehigh, three miles 
above Allentown, were about to commence some shafts on Richards’ farm. They 
have since, it is said, purchased Ihrie’s, so that it is now probable that the ores 
of this neighborhood will be well investigated. Above Richards’, the primary forma- 
tion approaching the river, cuts out the limestone, and consequently, the ore. 
But the limestone again showing itself higher up the river, a little ore has been dug 
above Bethlehem bridge, where, however, it is probably exhausted. Pursuing the 
same line to the S. W., we find an iron mine, (Swartz’s), at present neglected, 
about three-fourths of a mile S. W. of Emaus. At this spot there is only one mine 
hole, about forty feet deep. Smelted alone, this ore made a cold short iron, and was 
therefore usually mingled with other ores, principally with that from Breinig’s 
mine. In some of the specimens found here, no manganese could be detected, though 
some of the ore has a manganesian aspect. Its geological position is in diluvium, 
lying near the border of the limestone. 


The local iron industry received a great impetus in 1840 owing to 
the successful smelting of the iron ore by the use of anthracite coal. 
Before 1840 anthracite had -been used in place of charcoal, but not 
until 1840, when the Lehigh Iron Co. (later changed to the Crane 
Iron Co.) started its first blast furnace at Catasauqua, was the ex- 





1Henry, M. S., History of the Lehigh Valley, p. 165, 1860. 
2Rogers, H. D.,- Fifth annual report on the geological survey of Pennsylvania, pp. 
42-48, 1841. 


ol 


periment entirely successful. To furnish ore for the furnace several 
iron mines in the vicinity were opened. The first of these was Rice’s 
or Henry Hoch’s, near Shoenersville. Two other mines near by, 
known as Goetz’s and Daniel’s, were opened about the same time. The 
Crane Iron Co. (now owned and operated by the Replogle Steel 
Co.) in its furnace at Catasauqua has probably used more local ores 
than any other company in this section. 

Within the next decade iron furnaces became numerous along 
Lehigh River from Coplay to Easton and most of them were run 
mainly if not entirely on local limonite ores (usually called brown 
hematite by miners and furnacemen), supplemented at some furnaces 
by magnetite ore from New Jersey. There is scarcely a settlement 
along Lehigh River within the Allentown quadrangle that has not 
at some time had blast furnaces in operation. 

The Lehigh Valley Iron Co. (later the Coplay Iron Co.) erected 
a furnace at Coplay in 1854 which continued to operate until 1873, 
producing about 6,000 tons of pig iron a year. 

In 1854 the Thomas Iron Co. was organized and shortly began 
the erection of two blast furnaces at Hokendauqua. Two other 
furnaces were subsequently built. Some of these furnaces have been 
in operation almost continuously ever since 1855. New Jersey and 
Lake Superior ores have gradually replaced the local limonite ores. 

The Allentown Iron Co. erected its first furnace in Allentown in 
1846 and other furnaces in 1847, 1852, 1855, and 1872. The site of 
the old furnaces was later occupied by a small charcoal furnace. 
The company obtained a \arge portion of its ore from the northwest 
slope of South Mountaitu. northeast of Emaus. 

For 37 years the Lehigh Iron Co. operated two furnaces at the 
base of the mountain half a mile below Allentown along the Lehigh 
Valley Railroad. The first furnace was started in 1869 and the sec- 
ond in 1872. Both were later rebuilt. They were run on local ores 
for many years, but afterward Lake Superior, Adirondack, and New 
Jersey ores were substituted. These furnaces were closed in 1906 and 
dismantled in 1909. 

In 1857 the Saucona Iron Co. was organized to work the Gangewere 
mine in the Saucon Valley and to erect a blast furnace. The first 
plan was to build the furnace at the mine, but it was later decided to 
build the furnace at South Bethlehem, and the name of the company 
was changed to the Bethlehem Rolling Mills & Iron Co. Owing to 
financial difficulties the erection of the furnace was not started until 
July, 1861, and about that time the name of the company was changed 
to the Bethlehem Iron Co. On account of the Civil War it was not 
until January, 1863, that the furnace was completed and put into 
operation. In 1868 the Northampton Iron Co., which owned large 
iron mines in the Saucon Valley and which was building a furnace 


32 


near Freemansburg, was merged with the Bethlehem Iron Co. For 
many years a large part of the ore used came from the Saucon Valley. 
At present the company, which is now the Bethlehem Steel Co., uses 
no local ores. 

The next furnace on Lehigh River below those described was that 
of the Coleraine Iron Co., located at Redington, which was organized 
by W. T. Carter & Co., of Philadelphia, in 1869. Two furnaces were 
operated for several years but are now in ruins. The company owned 
and operated four mines in Northampton County, three in Lehigh 
County, and three in Berks County. 

Just east of the boundary of the Allentown quadrangle along 
Lehigh River is the Keystone furnace, which for years obtained its 
ore from mines near by. The building of the furnace was started in 
June, 1873, and it was first put in blast April 17, 1876. On April 1, 
1882, it was purchased by the Thomas Iron Co., which operated it 
until recently. 

Two iron companies have operated furnaces in the Saucon Valley. 
The largest operator was the Saucon Iron Co., which built two 
furnaces at Hellertown, one of which was put in blast on March 25, 
1868, and the other on May 25, 1870. The company owned several 
iron mines near Hellertown and Bingen and a few miles of railroad 
connecting some of the mines with the North Pennsylvania, Phila- 
delphia & Reading Railroad. The company’s properties were sold 
to the Thomas Iron Co., on December 18, 1884, and the furnaces have 
been in operation almost continuously ever since. Local limonite 
mines furnished much of the ore until a few years ago. 

The North Pennsylvania Iron Co. was chartered in April, 1869, and 
proceeded to build a furnace at Bingen. The furnace was first blown 
in on June 1, 1871. On July 8, 1872, it was damaged by an explosion, 
and operations ceased until October 15 of the same year. After a 
few weeks the stack burst, and the furnace remained idle until 
January 25, 1873. It then worked with little interruption until 
April 8, 1875, but is now in ruins. The largest amount of pig iron 
manufactured in one year was 10,777 tons in 1874. Nearly all the 
ore used came from limonite mines near Bingen. 

The Reading Iron Co. operates a furnace at Emaus, which has 
been in operation since about 1880. The first ore used was entirely 
local and was obtained from the magnetite mines near Vera Cruz 
and the limonite mines in the vicinity of Emaus. In recent years the 
ore has come mainly from the Lake Superior region and Sweden. 

On a map of the Durham and Reading Hills prepared by the Second 
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania a furnace is shown along the road 
about 1 mile east of Vera Cruz station, but no information in 
regard to it has been obtained. If there ever was a furnace in that 
locality it must have been operated for a short time only. 


33 


Many of the furnace companies also owned and operated mines. 
However, most of the mines of the region were owned by individuals 
or by mining companies, and these produced the greater part of the 
ore used in the quadrangle. Some of these mines were worked for 
short periods only and were of little consequence, but others were 
operated for 40 or 50 years and yielded a large tonnage. Altogether 
152 mines are shown on the map, and no doubt some of the smaller 
ones are not shown, as the old workings have now been filled and 
all record of their existence has been lost. Most of these mines sup- 
plied limonite ore (brown hematite), although a number of magne- 
tite mines were worked, especially in the mountains between Emaus 
and Vera Cruz. 

The only iron mine in operation in the region within the last ten 
years is a magnetite mine on the south slope of South Mountain north 
of Vera Cruz and the only furnaces in blast are using ores shipped 
from distant points. The furnaces that remain are at Hokendauqua, 
Catasauqua, Bethlehem, Hellertown, and Emaus. Many persons still 
living recall the time when the roads in all directions were occasion- 
ally rendered almost impassable on account of the heavy loads of ore 
hauled over them to the furnaces from the local mines. In places 
the roads were occupied by long lines of ore wagons, and mining was 
one of the principal occupations. At present the old mine holes that 
are filled with water serve as swimming holes for the boys of the vicin- 
ity or furnish excellent places for raising bullfrogs or fish. However, 
interest in the mining of iron ore has not been lost, prospecting for 
good deposits is still being carried on from time to time, and many 
persons are confidently looking forward to the revival of mining 
activity in the region. 


Brown Iron Ores (Limonite). 

The iron ores of the Allentown quadrangle belong to two classes— 
the brown (limonite) and gray (carbonate) ores of the Cambrian 
and Ordovician formations and the magnetite ores of the pre-Cam- 
brian gneisses. The two classes are sharply separated in practically 
all their characteristics, such as kind of ore, method of occurrence, 
and origin. 

The brown ores (limonite) of the region are generally known lo- 
cally as brown hematite. There is some justification for this usage, 
as some of the ore is decidedly red on account of the admixture of 
goethite and turgite and in places might be confused with hematite. 
The limonite ores are separable into two classes, which have been 
called “mountain ores” and “valley ores.” Both classes are well 
represented in this quadrangle. The mountain ores are found along 
the slopes of South Mountain and in some of the narrow valleys 
east of the Saucon Valley and are included within the Cambrian 
quartzite areas; the valley ores occur in the broad yalleys in areas of 
Cambian and Ordovician limestones, 

3B 


34 ey . 
Distribution. 


Mountain ores. The mountain ores are confined to the areas of 
Cambrian quartzite but do not occur in all places where that 
formation is present. Most of the mountain ore mines of the quad- 
rangle are in a belt along the northwest slope of South Mountain 
that extends from the western margin of the quadrangle to a point 
some distance beyond Mountainville, and one mine is in the 
same line near the place where this range joins the ridge extend- 
ing from Allentown to Bethlehem. Mines in these ores have also 
been worked in the short, steep-sided valleys southeast, east, and 
northeast of Hellertown. A few mines are more or less isolated, 
such as the mine a quarter of a mile southwest of Limeport, two 
mines about 1 mile west of Center Valley, one half a mile south of 
Springtown, and one at the extreme east margin of the quadrangle 
about half a mile south of Lehigh River. 

Mines are numerous in certain areas of the Cambrian quartzite 
but are lacking in other regions where the formation is equally well 
developed, such as the slopes of the mountain that face Lehigh 
River. The metamorphic changes which the formation has under- 
gone locally since its deposition have determined the places where 
ore has been deposited. In the regions where the ore deposits are 
present many of the original sandstone strata have been changed into 
jasperoid rocks, although certain conglomeratic strata remain 
' practically unchanged, but in places where ore deposits are absent 
the formation is composed entirely of ordinary saudstones and con- 
glomerates. It is therefore considered useless to prospect for iron 
ore of this type in areas where the irregular masses of yellow to red 
jasperoid rocks are absent in the soils. 

Valley ores. The limonite ores of the limestones are extremely ir- 
regular in their distribution. The map shows one belt of iron mines 
that extends in an east by north direction through Shoenersville and 
Hanoverville to Hollo and another in the Saucon Valley that extends 
about 3 miles west from Friedensville. Many other mines of the 
limestone regions, however, are not included in either of these belts. 


There seems to be some relation between the structural features of ~ 


the rocks and the location of the ore deposits, for as a rule the largest 
deposits of ore are found in places where the limestones have been 
closely folded or faulted. As the rocks are likely to be much more 
shattered at the crests of closely folded and eroded anticlinegs such 
places should be more favorable for ore deposition, and the investiga- 
tions in this region indicate a relationship of that kind. In general, 
those places in the limestones where the underground waters have 
collected and flowed with greater freedom are the places where the 
ore was deposited in largest amounts. Miners frequently remark 
- upon the observed connection of. underground watercourses and the 


4 


limonite deposits. As a rule, throughout the limestone regions good 
wells can be procured in few places at depths less than 200 feet, and 
yet few good iron mines have been opened where the volume of water 
encountered at depths of 100 feet or even less was not an obstacle 
to the development. 

Limonite deposits are not found in the valleys of the main streams 
but only in those places where recent erosion has been of small ex- 
tent. They are more common in local depressions in the general up- 
land surface in regions where sink-hole topography is noticeable. 
As the glacial deposits are usually thicker over the ore deposits than 
in the surrounding region it is probable that depression existed there 
before the glacial epoch and glacial deposition was probably greater 
there than in the higher regions near by. 


Occurrence. 


All the limonite ore deposits of the Allentown quadrangle are 
surficial. They are irregular in extent and either occupy pockets 
in the underlying rocks as much as 100 feet or more in diameter, or 
follow certain strata that more readily yielded to solution or replace- 
ment. In the belt of iron mines along the slope of South Mountain 
northeast of Emaus certain strata were converted into iron ore more 
or less completely for a distance of about half a mile, and the ore 
bodies are consequently parallel to the adjoining strata both in dip 
and strike. In other places, however, the ore formed irregular mass- 
es which bear little relation to the structure of the surrounding 
rocks, so far as can be determinea. Usually, however, the greatest 
diameter of the ore body is parallel to the strike of the inclosing 
strata. 

The position of the mountain ores near the base of the mountains 
formed of gneiss causes them in most places to have a surface cover 
of float rock from the higher ground, and consequently the ore ap- 
pears at the surface in but few places. This cover may be so deep 
that the ore can be worked only through shafts, although several of 
the mines near Emaus and Hellertown were worked by open cuts in 
the upper levels. 

In some places the valley ores are concealed by deep deposits of 
glacial material that render their discovery difficult, but most of 
the bodies of ore thus far worked were located by the float ore in the 
soil. Good ore in many mines was reached within a few feet below 
the surface. In some freshly plowed fields the soil in the vicinity of 
a body of limonite ore is of a rich brown color that can be easily dis- 
tinguished at a distance. Most of the ore bodies in the limestone 


36 


valleys have been discovered by sinking test pits in places where the 
soil was deeply colored and pieces of float ore were abundant. Bod- 
ies of workable ore have also been discovered by sinking test pits 
along the line of known deposits or in the vicinity of sink holes. 

The ore has been found as much as 175 feet below the surface, 
which was approximately the maximum depth of the mountain ore 
mines, owing to the difficulty of keeping them free from water and ~ 
also owing to the tendency for the shafts and drifts to be closed or 
rendered dangerous on account of the squeezing action of the clay 
associated with the deposits, which slowly moved downhill when 
saturated with water. It is probable that few of the bodies of limon- 
ite ore extend much below the ground-water level and thus that they 
scarcely exceed a maximum depth of 300 feet, which is much deeper 
than any of the mines of the region. In many of the valley-ore mines 
the limonite occupied shallow basins in the limestones and solid lime- 
stone was found at depths less than 50 feet. Rock in place is now 
exposed in many of the old limonite pits. In the mines of mountain 
ore the ore became leaner or changed to ore high in sulphur in lower 
levels but still continued to the greatest depths reached. 

The iron ore is almost invariably associated with quantities of 
white, yellow, or buish-black clay formed by the decomposition of 
shaly strata which are interbedded with Cambrian sandstones and 
quartzites and the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones. In addi- 
tion to the clay, masses of jasperoid quartzite are commonly en- 
countered in the mountain-ore mines, and small and large rounded 
segregations of black chert occur in the valley ores. The fragments 
of jasper represent portions of the original Cambrian quartzite that 
have undergone less alteration. 

Within the clay the iron ore occurs either in the form of isolated 
masses or in rather definite veins that have a maximum width of 40 
feet. Even in the best ore bodies considerable clay and ocher are 
present, ranging from one-third to one-fourth of the material re- 
moved from the mine. In the average mine the clay washed from the 
ore constituted from 50 to 75 per cent of the product. The ore in 
the veins is invariably cavernous and contains considerable clay 
within the cavities. 

Yellow ocher is almost everywhere associated with the ore, as 
would be expected, for ocher is an intermediate product between the 
clay and the iron ore. In the ocher the limonite has not been segre- 
gated but occurs in the form of finely disseminated particles in- 
timately mixed with the clay. | 


37 
Physical Character. 


The limonite ore is found in several different forms some of which 
have received distinctive names by the miners, such as bombshell or 
pot ore, pipe ore, and wash ore. 

The bombshell, or pot ore, consists of more or less spherical masses 
of limonite that range in diameter from 1 inch to 2 feet. They are 
geodes of limonite, and many of them are hollow or filled with water 
whereas others are fairly well filled with white or drab clay or fine 
white to pink sand. The interior of these geodes almost invariably 
presents a black lustrous botryoidal surface, which in some speci- 
mens is markedly iridescent. The dark color of the interior suggests 
the presence of considerable manganese, and analyses commonly 
show this metal to be present. Tiny stalactites of limonite occur in 
many of the geodes. The walls of the bombshells range from con- 
siderably less than an inch up to an inch or more in thickness and 
in most specimens show a fibrous radiating structure in the inner 
layers. Some of the geodes contain sand grains firmly cemented by 
the iron oxide, but others are practically free from any siliceous 
particles that can be detected by the eye. In general, the bombshell 
ore is the highest grade ore obtained and can be readily freed from 
any adhering clay by washing. Many of the geodes consist largely of 
iron carbonate (siderite), and in a few mines the bombshell ore is 
called carbonate ore. Invariably, however, limonite also seems to 
be present, especially in the inner layers. The carbonate bombshell 
ore is gray when mined but later becomes brown, as the carbonate 
changes to limonite on exposure. Some geodes have been found in 
which the stratification of the original sandstone or limestone is 
preserved in the inclosing walls. 

Closely related to the bombshell ore are the large irregular masses 
of cellular material that form the bulk of the Jimonite ores. These 
masses are from a few inches to 10 feet or even more in diameter and 
consist of a network of thin partitions of limonité running in every 
direction. The cavities are usually small, as a rule not more than a 
few inches in extreme length, are exceedingly irregular in shape, 
and are commonly filled with an ocherous clay. The walls of the 
cavities are coated with a firmly cemented layer of the ocher. The 
character of this ore renders it possible for the miners to break the 
large masses readily with pick and sledge. 

Some of the mountain ores occur as masses of porous limonite 
roughly arranged in parallel layers and resemble in structure pieces 
of rotten wood. The layers probably represent the stratification 
lines of the original rocks. Tiny stalactites of limonite are abund- 
ant between the layers. 


38 


Small pieces of cellular ore in which the cavities are rectangular 
in shape are occasionally found. These specimens represent the 
segregation of limonite in joints of the original rock, the partial re- 
placement of the original rock, and the subsequent removal of the 
remainder through solution. Some of the longer tubelike masses are 
called pipe ore, although true pipe ore is somewhat different. In 
some places the original rock remains surrounded by a shell of limon- 
ite. In the mountain-ore mines pieces of limonite inclosing sand- 
stone are not uncommon. 

In many places the original sandstone of the mountain ores seems 
to have been broken into angular fragments, probably owing to the 
contraction of the mass as it changed to jasper, which usually pre- 
ceded the formation of the ore. These angular fragments have later 
been cemented by limonite that was precipitated in the cavities and 
forms a limonite breccia. In many specimens fragments of sand- 
stone or jasper have themselves later been replaced by limonite. In 
ore of this kind small particles of secondary vein quartz are more 
common than in. the other kinds of ore, although quartz is not com-, 
mon in any of the limonite ores. The secondary quartz shows that 
part of the siliceous material removed by the solution of the original 
rock was precipitated in the cavities of the iron ore. 

In the valley-ore mines tubes of limonite which inclose more or 
less sand are common. ‘This variety is known as “pipe ore’ and was 
the principal ore mined in many places. The largest tubes are a 
foot in diameter, although most of them range from 1 to 2 inches. 
Pieces more than 8 inches long are rare but as the pipes are invariab- 
ly broken at, each end they may have been originally several feet 
long. 

Fragments of limonite in the form of irregular particles or plates 
are invariably present in large quantities. They represent broken 
pieces of all the kinds of ore that have been described. As the rock 
disintegrates and clay and iron ore are formed there is a tendency 
for the entire mass to move down the slopes, which results in the 
breaking of the more fragile pieces of ore. The loss in bulk that 
takes place as the rock undergoes changes in composition also per- 
mits the downward settling of the material and the breaking of many 
of the masses of ore. The larger pieces of the fragmental ore are 
recovered in the washers, but the finer ones are lost. Ore of this 
kind is known as “wash ore.” 


39 
Composition. 


Minerals associated with the ores.— The composition of the limon- 
ite ores is extremely variable and depends largely on the physical 
character of the material. The presence of certain minerals closely 
associated with the limonite also determines the composition. The 
impurities in the ore comprise only a small number of minerals, © 
principally quartz, jasper, clay (kaolin), pyrite, pyrolusite, and 
wavellite. 

Siliceous matter of different kinds can be detected in almost all 
the mountain ores. In some places it represents the fine grains of 
sand of the original sandstones or sandy limestones, in-others second- 
ary chert or jasper, and in still others vein quartz. Clay fills many 
of the cavities in the ore, and much of it is not removed in passing 
through the log washers. Very small particles of pyrite can be seen 
with the naked eye in some specimens, particularly in the ore from 
the lower levels of certain mines. 

Pyrolusite is intimately associated with the limonite and is gen- 
erally detected by the dark color of the ore. Occasionally dendritic 
crystals of pyrolusite forming a thin cover to the limonite are found, 
but usually the pyrolusite occurs as the inner layer of the bomb- 
shell ore. In general the mountain ore contains a higher percentage 
of manganese than the valley ore. A mass of crystalline pyrolusite 
from the Wharton mine of the Thomas Iron Co., 2 miles east of 
Hellertown, yielded on analysis in the laboratory of the company the 
following results: . 


Analyses of pyrolusite from Wharton mine of Thomas Iron Co., 
2 miles east of Hellertown, Pa; 


UE ea, aes coke eM. sbdee aloe aie 5272 

RL Omen Ragas Wee a eee tora ats vcs Ue ae alae .868 

sth eee eer mn © VU CRE ENT care See etree 46 
De eae NAT elie, ig etn. fg at .046 


Most of the phosphorus in the ore is probably contained as alumin- 
ous and iron phosphates, such as wavellite [(AlOH),. (PO,).. 5H,O0] 
and cacoxenite [FePO,. Fe(OH),. 445H,O]. In the iron mine three- 
quarters of a mile southeast of Hellertown fine, delicate white radiat- 
ing crystals of wavellite occur within the cavities of the limonite 
ore. At the same locality fine tufts of golden-yellow crystals of 
cacoxenite are present in the small crevices of the ore and also 
small quantities of beraunite [Fe,(OH),(PO,)2. 25H,O]. In most 
of the ores, however, no phosphorus minerals can be seen, although 
analyses show that some are present. 

Mountain ores. Although the sulphur is almost invariably low 
some mines have been worked in which a large amount of pyrite is 


present in the lower levels. 


Mountainville. 


40 


This is especially true in the mines 
along the northwest slope of Lehigh Mountain between Emaus and 


It is probable that deeper workings may show an in- 


crease of pyrite in almost all the mines, but the decrease in the 
content of iron and the increased expense of mining has prevented 
the exploration of the lower portions of the ore bodies in most places. 
‘The examination of hundreds of analyses made by the chemists of 
the Thomas Iron Co., the Bethlehem Steel Co., and the Crane Iron 
Co. shows that the mountain ores average about 40 per cent iron, 20 
per cent silica, 0.40 per cent phosphorus, 0.20 per cent sulphur, and 


3.26 per cent manganese. 
per cent. 


The iron content ranges from 382 to 54 
Very little ore was used in which the ore contained less 


than 36 per cent iron, and a few mines have furnished much ore that 


ran as high as 50 per cent iron. 


high percentage of silica, ranging from 15 to 30 per cent. 
phorus is usually too high for Bessemer steel; in much of the ore 
it runs up to approximately 1 per cent. 
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the mountain ores is the 
high content of manganese, which ranges from 2 to 4 per cent in 
most of the mines but may run as high as 15 per cent in places, and 
pieces of practically pure pyrolusite are occasionally found. For 
this reason in making basic iron the mountain ores have always been 
in demand by the furnaces. 


at 
Fe. iL. were eee eas 35.63 
eSiQa eo See eee ee 28.12 
Po oe 7 5) eee eee 221 
Spee ee peti ee Ea .015 
Mn oe oe es ee 15.305 
Moisture! 6.22 eee eee = 
Ales Lr eee Sa ee ke 
Insoluble residue eee 
MeO ee eee ee | er ee ors 
Ca Q hk foe Seen eee 
i. 
town; average of 4 samples. 
2. 
3. Bachman mine; average of 6 Samples. 
4. Koch mine; average of 6 Samples. 
5. Emery or Beatty mine; average of 6 samples. 
6. Keck & Ritters mine, 2 miles east of Emaus. 
The 
8. Jesse Kline’s mine, 
9. 


The ores are characterized by a 


The phos- 


Analyses of limonite mountain ores of Allentown quadrangle, Pa. 














bo 











3 4 5 
41.19 | 31.94 | 37.15 
Pca SR TA) 17.39 
080") OUT. wea 
BOWES SO ACES By) 
ee 
Rue: 6.58 




















6 7 
39.25 | 36.50 
de ean 

029 | .107 
5.512 | 1.325 


21.880 | 31.215 




















8 9 

47.20 | 48.80 
075 .196 
039) -014 
2.707 -900 
ooaheeee 11.340 
oe 2.588 
14.980 | 13.915 
317 
300 





Lehigh Mining Co., north slope of Lehigh (South) Mountain between Emaus and ‘Heller- 
Thomas Iron Co. 


Wharton mine; average of large number of analyses. 


Thomas Iron Co. 
Thomas Iron Co. 


Genth. 


Trexler & Kline’s mine, three-fourths mile east of Emaus. 


Valley ores. 


the mountain ores. 


amount of magnesia and phosphorus in the valley ores. 


one-half mile east of Emaus. 
Central Seam’s mine, one and one-half miles east of Eimaus. 


Genth. 


Thomas Iron Co. 


Thomas Iron Co. 


Genth. 
Genth. 


The valley ores differ somewhat in composition from 


These differences are mainly in the greater 
amount of silica and manganese in the mountain ores and the greater 


Most of the 


ores after washing to remove the bulk of the loose clay averaged 


Al 


slightly more than 40 per cent metallic iron and ranged approximate- 
ly from 85 to 55 per cent. The analyses shown in the following 
table are of valley ores from the Saucon Valley.* 


Analyses of limonite valley ores of Allentown quadrangle. 


[A. S. 'MeCreath, analyst.] 























1 2 3 4 
PSMIDE Vaca 5 Ck) CEM IATA) 0 ip Eee Ya me! 64.428 75.714 68.785 47.000 
Ben@intomionerots trancganese 2 2 Soe 28 Lt fee eee 982 228 .207 . 889 
PIII OMAPEMCODRLD 2-2-0 oe be se tes esa 040 010) 020 . 080 
AALTTNCNTETED, Jaga (cee as 0 Tg ae Ses 2.108 | 142 2.974 8.696 
tee eI for ee ee ee ee ee see .170 | . 160 -120 -100 
Ragan emanate tee Fe Pe a he es eee sl Pee .288 233 .288 -418 
PORN OMT IC bmpemerts re oe So oe ke en es -| 032 S| 612 -062 
PaeNMIOTIeR ACI) Bee. 2S 28 nee J deed Ge, Aenea! vie 1.104 says .941 584 
rn eterna nie Sef ae ee bk a hese! 12.724 18.866 8.622 


Insoluble residue 





100.286 99.957 | 100.123 | 100.391 

















SUS IEE TERRE: jee Spee Sook SR a a a | 45.100 53.000 48.150 32.900 
Rieter ANESe = 22. 2 oo ak tee Ee eee .684 159! 144 .619 
Bulppur 25s 2 ee AE Le a ee eee eee ee ee 013) .179 . 245: 025 
PU OTN RIS 2c S R  e e LN 182 -513 -411 -200 
1. Lump and wash ore from David Schneider’s mine, 3 miles southwest of Friedensville. 
2. Pipe ore from Kurtz’s mine near Friedensville. 
3. Lump and wash ore from Morgan Mory’s mine near Friedensville. 
4. Lump and wash ore from G. & W. Mory’s mine near Friedensville. 


Origin. 


Processes of formation.—Although the limonite iron ores of the 
Appalachian region have been discussed in hundreds of articles, 
there is still no entirely satisfactory explanation of their origin. 
Many investigators have shown a tendency to regard all of them as 
having a similar origin, which is an incorrect view. Even in a sin- 
gle mine evidence can sometimes be obtained to prove that limonite 
has been formed by the oxidation of pyrite, by the oxidation and hy- 
dration of siderite, by the replacement of limestone or sandstone, by 
the segregation of particles of disseminated limonite, or by precipita- 
tion in open fissures or other cavities. Under such conditions it is 
obvious that a theory which attributes the origin of these ores to one 
process of formation is not sufficient even for certain single deposits 
and is entirely inadequate for universal application. 


The limonite ores are commonly known as “residuary iron ores” 


and are supposed by many investigators to represent the insoluble 
oxidized particles of iron that were originally present in limestones 





%Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rep. MM, p. 217, 1879. 


42 


or shales in the form of carbonates or sulphides and were left as a 
residuum when the mass of the country rock was removed by solu- 
tion. Such an explanation, however, disregards the concentration 
of the ores in somewhat veinlike ore bodies. The particles of limon- 
ite have not merely been left as a relatively insoluble residuum on 
the removal of the inclosing rock, but instead in the main they have 
been transported in solution and precipitated in more or less con- 
centrated form in the clays that are plainly of residuary origin. For 
these reasons the term “residuary limonite ores” is likely to be mis: 
leading and is only appropriate if the ores are considered to repre- 
sent materials that were once distributed through a great thickness 
of rocks now removed by erosion. The ores themselves have also been 
dissolved, transported, and precipitated, perhaps several times. 

In the discussion of the origin of the brown iron ores three stages 
should be considered—the original source of the iron, the primary 
segregation, and the secondary concentration. 

Original source of the iron.—The iron of the brown iron ores. was 
probably present in the form of pyrite, magnetite, or some ferro- 
magnesian silicate, original constituents of the igneous rocks that 
underlie all the sedimentary strata in which the bodies of ore now 
occur. When the Cambrian and Ordovician sandstones, limestones, 
and shales were deposited in the shallow waters of the Appalachian 
sea both pyrite and siderite were precipitated from solution to form 
part of these sedimentary strata. Consequently all the rocks of the 
region—gneisses, sandstones, limestones, and shales—have con- 
tributed material for the formation of the ore bodies. Not only have 
the rocks now present in the region yielded iron for these deposits, 
but much was also derived from a great thickness of rocks which 
once overlay the present strata and were removed in the long period 
during which the Appalachian province has been subjected to erosion. 
At least 10,000 feet of strata have been removed by erosion from the 
region since Ordovician time, and though no doubt most of the iron 
of these rocks was carried away, a considerable portion was dis- 
solved and precipitated in the underlying rocks. 

Primary segregation of the iron.—The most striking feature of the 
occurrence of limonite deposits in the limestones is their relation 
to channels of underground drainage. The abundance of water was 
a serious obstacle in the operation of almost every valley-ore mine 
that was more than 50 feet in depth though elsewhere in the lime- 
stone valleys wells must be sunk much deeper in order to procure 
enough water for household use. As these water channels are 
formed by the fractures in the rocks which were proauced during 
the great earth disturbances at the ends of the Ordovician and Car-_ 
boniferous periods, it is reasonably certain that the ground water 
has been flowing through them for millions of years. 


43 


The mountain ores are also found in regions where the rocks have 
been fractured and afford free passage for the ground water circu- 
lation. In every place in the region where the mountain ores have 
been mined the Cambrian sandstones have been largely altered to 
jasper or chert. The metamorphism is believed to have taken place 
mainly at the end of the Ordovican period, when the region was sub- 
jected to intense dynamic forces that resulted in the intricate folding 
and faulting now so well exhibited. Post-Carboniferous movements al- 
so have been effective in producing the complicated structure. Mete- 
oric waters that passed through the deformed strata were undoubtedly 
heated above normal temperature and their dissolving power was 
increased. The grains of quartz of the sandstones were dissolved, 
and the material was later precipitated in the cryptocrystalline 
form. In the replacement there was a considerable shrinkage, as is 
shown by the numerous contraction cracks or brecciated form of 
the jasperoid rock. In some places the cavities were subsequently 
filled with quartz or jasper which made the rock almost as compact 
as it was originally, but in general the jasperoid rock is extremely 
porous. ? 

The first step in the formation of the ore was the segregation of 
the iron that was disseminated through the gneisses, sandstones, 
limestones, and shales of the region in the form of pyrite and siderite. 
Meteoric waters that passed downward through the strata dissolved 
the pyrite and siderite. When these solutions reached the shattered 
areas in the limestones or the zones of porous jasperoid rock that 
rested on gneisses the water in many places ascended, just at the 
present time the deep-seated waters of the region rise to the surface 
along fault or fracture zones. Even in the areas where only lime- 
stones are present flowing wells have been obtained at depths of 750 
feet, which shows the tendency of the deeper waters of the region to 
' rise under artesian pressure when a passageway is provided. 

In the Cambrian sandstones the ascending solutions precipitated 
pyrite in part as a filling of previously existed cavities and in part 
as a metasomatiec replacement of the jasperoid rock or the shales 
that were interbedded with the quartzite, especially in the upper 
part of the formation. So few mines have been worked to the depth 
where the pyrite ore still persists that little evidence of the manner 
of deposition of the pyrite is available. Some specimens obtained 
from one of the mines about halfway. between Emaus and Mountain- 
ville indicate an almost complete replacement of the quartzite, but it 
is doubtful whether these are typical. Instead, it is probable that 
the substitution of the pyrite for the jasper and shales was irregular 
and variable. One of the chief supports of the view that ascending 
waters have caused the segregation of the pyrite is furnished by the 
depth to which the pyrite extends. It is now found at the greatest 
depths explored, far below ground-water level. The level of ground 


44. 


water has fallen as the valleys have been deepened by erosion, and 
therefore it is probable that part of the pyrite was formed at much 
greater depths than would be possible if it were segregated by de- 
scending waters. Besides, in the almost complete absence of any 
organic matter in the Cambrian quartzite it is difficult to see how 
the precipitation of the pyrite could have been accomplished by 
descending waters rich in oxygen, in which the temperature and 
pressure would have continually been on the increase. Decrease of 
temperature and relief of pressure were probably the dominant factors 
in the precipitation of the pyrite from the ascending solutions. 

In regard to the valley ores, the primary segregation of pyrite by 
artesian waters as the first stage in the formation of the present 
ore bodies is less definitely known. The massive pyrite found in 
the lower levels of the Friedensville zine mines and the increase of 
pyrite with depth in many of the limonite valley ore mines indicate 
the presence of pyrite beneath the brown ores in certain places, 
although the data are too meager to warrant the conclusion that a 
zone of pyrite is everywhere present. In a brown iron ore mine 
near Breinigsville, in the Slatington quadrangle enough pyrite was 
obtained in the lower levels to be profitably marketed. In most 
places, however, the mines were not worked deep enough to de- 
termine whether pyrite commonly underlies the limonite ores or 
not. The increase of sulphur in the ore caused some mines to be- 
come unprofitable, but the excess of water and the slumping of 
the clay banks were the principal. causes for other mines closing 
before a zone of pyrite was reached. Nevertheless the facts at hand 
warrant the conclusion that many of the great limonite deposits 
of the region are underlain by considerable pyrite, which, however, 
may be and probably is as a rule too greatly disseminated to be of 
any economic importance. 

Part of the precipitation took place in open fissures in the lime- 
stones, but much of it was in the nature of replacement of the 
rocks that constitute the walls of the fissures. This feature was 
plainly shown in the Friedensville zinc mines, where the limestones 
were extensively replaced by pyrite. 

The brown iron ores are invariably associated with a large amount 
of clay representing the residuum of shaly strata interbedded with the 
limestones and sandstones. These impervious shaly beds undoubt- 
edly to a large degree furnished favorable conditions for the primary 
segregation of the pyrite through assisting the concentrated flow 
of the mineralized underground waters, and the places where the 
Shaly strata were present were therefore most suitable for the 
deposition of the minerals that were carried in solution. 

The presence of pyrite in the lower workings in considerable 
quantities seems to indicate that the ores cannot have been formed 


45 


entirely by descending waters that have brought the iron in solu- 
tion to these places, as is generally supposed. The abundance of 
pyrite invalidates the explanation of other writers who believed 
that the ores deposited in the Cambrian sea as limonites or that 
they represent the oxidation in place of iron carbonate ores that 
were deposited as marine precipitates. There are likewise valid 
objections to the explanation proposed by Chance,* who believes that 
the ores are gossan deposits that were formed by the oxidation of 
pyrite which was “a mechanically transported sediment, derived 
from the erosion of older eruptives.” On account of the instability 
of pyrite it could hardly be liberated from igneous rocks through 
the decomposition of some of the constituent minerals without it- 
self being oxidized, and the situation of most if not all of the ore 
bodies in regions where the rocks have been greatly shattered might 
also be used as an argument against this view. 


Whether the carbonate ores were formed during the primary 
mineralization can not be definitely determined without additional 
information. The carbonate ores are found in the lower levels of 
both the valley ore and the mountain-ore mines in association with 
the limonite, but data are lacking as to their association with the 
underlying pyrite. Where the ascending iron-bearing solutions came 
into contact with limestones or encountered carbonate waters from 
the limestones, it would be natural to expect the formation of 
siderite and in all probability part of the iron in the primary segre- 
gation was precipitated as siderite and either replaced the rocks or 
filled fissures just as the pyrite did. In the Wharton mine, south- 
east of Hellertown, the carbonate ore was less abundant in the lowest 
workings than it was a short distance above them, which might mean 
that it did not extend into the region of unaltered primary mineral 
deposition and thus point to its secondary character. At present it 
is well to consider the carbonate ores as in part primary and in 
part secondary and not to attempt to say avhich class is the most 
important. 


Secondary concentration of the iron ores—The present workable 
iron deposits are the products of alteration of the original segrega- 
tions of pyrite by descending waters carrying oxygen and carbon 
dioxide in solution. Some of the sulphide was changed directly to 
limonite, forming a spongy ore characteristic of gossan deposits; 
other portions were altered to limonite that was taken into solution 
and metasomatically replaced part of the associated quartzite or 
was precipitated in open spaces as stalactites of limonite; and still 
other portions were converted into siderite and precipitated as bomb- 
shell ore or compact rounded concretions. Numerous specimens il- 


4Chance, H. M., Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Trans. vol. 39, pp. 522-539, 1909. 


46 


lustrating each of these processes have been found in the vicinity of 
the abandoned iron mines along the slope of South Mountain be- 
tween Emaus and Mountville. 

The following chemical reactions illustrate some of the probable 
changes which took place. 


FeS, + 70 + H,O = FeSO, + H,S0, 
6FeSO, + 30 + 3H,0 = 2Fe, (SO,), + 2Fe(OH), 
2H,0-+FeS0,+CaC0,—FeC0,+CaS0,.2H,0 
FeCO, -+- H,O + CO, = Fe(HCO,), 

Fe(HCO,), + CaCO, = FeCO, + Ca(HCO,). 
2Fe(HCO,), + 0 + H,O = Fe(OH), + 2C0, 


In most places the descending waters probably deposited the iron 
minerals in more concentrated bodies than had been done in the 
primary mineralization, yet this may not have been true every- 
where. In some places where large deposits of pyrite had existed, 
the mineral waters that resulted from the oxidization and solution 
of the pyrite were probably dispersed and lost. 

As siderite is not stable in the presence of highly oxygenated sur- 
face waters it has practically all been changed to limonite near 
the surface but still persists a short distance below the ground- 
water level. In many of the mines siderite nodules partly altered to 
limonite can be found. 

The pyrolusite found with the limonite has had a similar origin. 
It probably existed in the pyrite and on oxidation was changed to 
its present form. Part of the manganese has been segregated to 
form masses of practically pure manganese oxide, but the bulk of it 
is intimately mixed with the limonite. 

In places large rounded masses or small botryoidal segregations of 
secondary chalcedony are abundant. These masses occur in the 
clay and may have been formed by ascending waters at the time the 
pyrite was concentrated or more recently by descending waters. 
Lack of information regarding their distribution in depth prevents 
any positive conclusion. 

In some of the mines in the limestones there is every indication 
that the limonite deposits are the result of precipitation from de- 
cending waters alone, no pyrite ever having been present in the 
immediate locality, as the limestone floor gives no indication of the 
presence of deep fissures through which ascending waters might 
have brought pyrite. In such places the deposition of the limonite 
has been produced by percolating waters which dissolved the dis- 
seminated iron minerals that were present in the overlying strata 
and carried them as sulphates or bicarbonates until they were 
checked by impervious shaly strata in their downward movement 


47 


and became stagnant and then gradually precipitated the iron in 
the form of limonite or carbonate, probably by coming into con- 
tact with other surface waters that carried oxygen in solution. 
Such an origin is generally believed to account for most of the 
limonite deposits that are so widespread in the Appalachian region. 
According to this theory all limonite deposits would form only close 
to the surface, and as they could scarcely be expected to form 
rapidly, the regions where they are found must have been subject to 
very little erosion for a long period or else they would have been re- 
moved by erosion. 


During the period of stability in Tertiary time when the Swarth- 
more peneplain, so well represented in the limestone valleys, was de- 
veloped, conditions were favorable for the formation of ore bodies in 
this manner, and no doubt many of the brown iron ore deposits of 
the valley-ore type were formed at that time. Similar ore bodies 
were probably formed during the periods of Harrisburg and Schoo- 
ley peneplanation, but these deposits have been largely if not en- 
tirely removed by subsequent erosion, which has destroyed all por- 
tions of these peneplains in the limestone valleys. 


Prime,’ in his discussion of the iron ores of the region, suggested 
a secondary origin of a different character for some of the deposits 
then being worked. He says: 

The whole appear: 1ce of the mine is that of a secondary deposit and seems to 
point to the ore no’ being in place. All through the yellow clay there are frag- 
ments of rock—liz.estone, damourite slate, and quartzite. The two former are an- 
gular, the latter more rounded. The conclusion arrived at by the writer is that the 
entire deposit has been formed during the Drift period; the ore, rock and clay 


having been pushed down from deposits to the north or northwest and deposited 
here in a depression of the limestone rock. 


There is no doubt that much of the limonite picked up in the 
fields owes its present position to transportation by the ice during 
the glacial epoch but it is extremely doubtful whether any work- 
able deposits have been formed in this manner, as suggested in the 
passage quoted. 


The clay that is associated with the limonite ore represents the 
residual materials left by the decomposition of aluminous and sil- 
iceous strata. These clays were formed at the same time that 
the secondary concentration of the ore took place. In places shaly 
laminae or shale partings are interbedded with the limestones and 
-sandstones, and these strata would yield much clay. Prime believed 
that the black clays had been formed from some of the overlying 
Crdovican black slates, which he called Utica slates. In ‘some of 
the descriptions of individual mines quoted from his report (p. 53), 
statements of this kind are made. The irregular distribution of 





5Prime, Frederick, Jr., Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. D3, vol. 1, p. 201, 1883. 


48 


the black clay and its occurrence in some places in detached masses 
beneath clays unquestionably formed from strata interbedded with 
the limestones and sandstones preclude such an origin. It must be 
admitted, however, that the formation of the different kinds of 
clay—red, white, drab, blue, and black—found in the mines of the 
region, presents many unsolved problems. Information is lacking in 
regard to the original character of the beds which gave rise to these 
varieties of clays. At the surface these strata have been thoroughly 
decomposed, and there are no deep excavations to furnish the de- 
sired data. 

The depth to which the clay and the brown ores extend, nearly 
200 feet in several places, indicates free underground drainage. 
Where the rocks have been decomposed to so great depths the struc- 
tural features, such as the fracture zones previously mentioned, open- 
ings between bedding surfaces caused by the uptilting of the strata, 
and the alteration of limestones and shales or sandstones and shales, 
favored the collection of the surface waters into channels and pro- 
duced the localization of weathering described. The depth to which 
the limonite and the clays extend implies that outlets for subter- 
ranean drainage existed at equivalent or lower elevations. 

As the decomposition and removal by solution of portions of the 
strata proceeded the ground gradually settled downward, producing 
sink holes, which would still further increase the volume of per- 
colating water through the collection of mere of the rain water, 
which formerly reached the surface streams. When the ice sheet ad- 
vanced over the limestone valleys these depressed areas were largely 
obliterated by the deposition of glacial débris, which is generally 
thicker over the iron-ore deposits than elsewhere. 

The settling of the clay owing to the shrinkage of the rocks also 
resulted in the breaking of the particles of iron ore, producing 
the “wash ore” described elsewhere in this report. 


Method of Working. 


Most of the limonite mines of the limestone regions have been 
worked by open cuts, especially in the early stages, and many of the 
mines of the Cambrian quartzites were also worked in that way. 
The great quantity of clay and the few ledges of hard rocks associ- 
ated with the ore at first favored open-cut work, but as the excava- 
tions increased in depth the loose materials tended to slide into the 
pits after heavy rains, and shaft mining replaced the former method. 
In numerous places shafts have been sunk in or near old pits. Where 
the mines were located on steep slopes, as were many of those in the 
Cambrian quartzite, the deep cover of hillside wash rendered shaft 
mining necessary from the beginning. 


49 


In open-cut mining the main body of ore, which occurred in a 
more or less veinlike form, was followed, but mining was not re- 
stricted to these bodies. Throughout the mass of clay considerable 
wash and lump ore would be found, sufficient to justify practically 
everything being taken out and run through the washers for a con- 
siderable distance on either side of the body of concentrated ore. 
In this way, in some places, several acres were worked over. When 
a pit was first opened horses and carts were used to haul the ore to 
the washer, but as the mine became deeper inclined tracks were laid, 
up which the ore was hauled in small cars. In the open-cut mines 
of the limestone regions the limestone floor was very irregular. The 
rock came within 25 feet of the ‘surface in many places, but else- 
where it was not reached at the greatest depths. In general the ore 
is concentrated to a greater degree where the decomposition of the 
rocks has proceeded to a great depth, as the ground waters which 
followed the most open passageways accomplished both the decompo- 
sition of the rocks and the segregation of the ore. 

In shaft mining the veinlike ore bodies were followed in drifts run 
at different levels and stopes were raised to the levels above. Most 
of these bodies of ore are approximately parallel to the strike of the 
inclosing rocks, especially in the Cambrian quartzites, where certain 
layers were more easily replaced than others. When the ore that 
was being followed became lean or disappeared crosscuts would be 
made to either side or the direction of the drift changed in a haphaz- 
ard manner. In the operation of some mines it was assumed that 
more ore would be found by drifting in a certain direction, and if 
this surmise proved incorrect efforts would be made to find ore in 
another direction. Pockets of good ore were thus likely to be lo- 
cated after several attempts, and at the same time a few lumps and 
small fragments of ore would be found while driving the exploratory 
drifts. 

The loose clay through which the shafts and drifts are driven may 
be said with little exaggeration to be in constant motion from the 
time mining starts until all the openings are filled by caving after 
mining has ceased. Shafts must be abandoned on account of squeez- 
ing, which pushes them out of plumb, and drifts tend to close through 
the pressure, which at times becomes so great that large timbers are 
broken or shoved out of position. In most mines it was necessary to 
timber both shafts and drifts very carefully, and the close timbering 
prohibited any examination of the occurrence of the ore except at 
the working face. 

In most mines there were no ore chutes or loading pockets, as the 
activity of the mines was of too short duration to warrant their con- 
struction and also the great amount of clay present would have pre- 
vented the ore from running through them. In some mines the ore 


4B 


was loaded in buckets that were placed in a small car, which was 
then pushed to the bottom of the shaft and hoisted. In other mines 
small cars were used without the buckets. 

The quantity of water encountered was a serious obstacle to the 
mining in almost every mine that exceeded 50 to 75 feet in depth. 
Cornish pumps were used in almost all the mines, and the water was 
employed in washing the ore. , 

The mining equipment was never elaborate, because of the charact- 
er of occurrence of the ore, and the output of any particular mine 
was consequently small. It is doubtful whether the output of any 
of the mines averaged more than 35 tons a day, and in most of them 
the average output was less than half that quantity. ) 


Preparation for Market. 


The large amount of clay invariably associated with the limonite 
ore necessitates washing most of the ore before it can ‘be shipped to 
the furnaces. In some mines masses of fairly pure ore were obtained 
that were practically free from adhering clay, and these were ready 
for shipment as mined, but this material was exceptional. 

In the washing process several modifications of the common log 
washer were used. In its simplest form this device is merely a log 
or shaft to which are attached, in a spiral arrangement, iron plates 
that project a few inches. This log, which can be rotated, is set 
at an angle and surrounded by a trough, into which the mixture of 
ore and clay is dumped. Above the trough runs a water pipe or 
small trough with numerous perforations through which the 
water passes to mix with the clay and ore. The ore and the asso- 
ciated clay are dumped into the lower part of the trough, and the 
log is rotated to carry the large particles upward to the end of the 
trough, where they fall on a platform, while the water carries the 
clay in suspension to the lower part, where it flows into a line of 
wooden troughs, usually supported by trestles, that convey it to a 
settling pond. 

If the clay adheres very firmly to the ore it may become necessary 
to reverse some of the teeth or plates in the log in order to retard the 
passage of the ore and give them more opportunity to loosen the 
clay. 
In the washing process pieces of chert or other rocks remain with 
the ore and must be picked out by hand and many small fragments 
of ore are washed away by the water. 

Most of the mines yielded enough water for washing the ore, but 
at times some of them had to obtain additional water from wells or 


51 


near-by streams. In some places the comparatively clear water 
from the settling ponds was drawn off into another basin and again 
pumped to the washers. 

The daily average of ore handled by a single washer was never 
large but ranged from 15 to 35 tons. 


Economic Considerations. 


If a region where iron mining was once one of the principal in- 
dustries gradually undergoes a change by which all the mines are 
closed and yet the iron-manufacturing industry still continues, the 
natural conclusion would be that the iron ore deposits had been ex- 
hausted. In the Allentown quadrangle, however, where 135 limonite 
mines are known to have ‘been worked and at present none are in 
operation, other causes have contributed to the existing situation. 
Many of the mines were worked out or abandoned because the ore 
was too lean, but many of them were closed for other reasons, and it 
is not improbable that as much ore still remains in the ground as 
has ever been mined. Many of the mines when closed had as much 
ore in sight as at any preceding period, and undoubtedly there are 
numerous deposits that were never worked. When the fields are 
freshly plowed many promising places for prospecting can be dis- 
tinguished by the brown color of the soil and the fragments of float 
ore, which favor the conclusion that many ore deposits have never 
been developed. 

In the early days many of the iron companies that operated fur- 
naces acquired ore properties which they either worked or leased 
under the arrangement that all the ore would be sold to the furnaces 
at current prices. The royalties paid ranged from 20 to 50 cents a 
ton. In addition many independent companies acquired ore proper- 
ties and engaged in iron mining and always found a ready market 
for their ores. In recent years, however, a great change in the iron 
industry has resulted in the closing of many of the small independ- 
ent furnaces and a concentration of the iron ‘business in a few large 
companies. The disposal of pig iron made by the small independent 
furnaces has become increasingly difficult, and many of them have 
had to close. The larger companies have found so many objections 
to the local brown iron ores that for many years the mining of them 
has continued to decline, although a few mines in neighboring re- 
gions are still in operation. 

Perhaps the chief objection to the local brown iron ores is the 
variability of the supply. In winter the severe weather prevented 
open-cut mines from operating, and the condition of the roads at 


52 


times interfered with the delivery of the ore. The output of a few 
of the largest mines is given elsewhere (p. 62) to show the variabil- 
ity in the supply. No concern that uses a large quantity of ore 
wishes to contract for a supply that is so uncertain. 

The variation in composition is also a drawback to the tilee won 
of the local limonite ores. As shown elsewhere, both the iron con- 
tent and the amounts of silica and phosphorus were extremely vari- 
able and hence objectionable. The ore averages too high in phos- 
phorus for Bessemer ore, and none of it is high in iron. The aver- 
age limonite ores of the district contain only a little more than 40 
per cent of iron. Under such conditions it was inevitable that high- 
gerade iron ores that are low in phosphorus, such as the Lake Su- 
perior ores, should replace the local ores when improved transporta- 
tion facilities permitted competition. 

The mine operators also encountered difficulties in the profitable 
operation of their properties because of: the increased cost of labor 
and the additional cost of pumping the water as the mines became 
deeper. The result was that many firms hesitated to open new mines 
when it became necessary to abandon their old ones and decided to 
disband. Conditions are not now sufficiently favorable to attract 
new capital to the iron-mining industry. 


The future of the mining of brown iron ore in this region is prob- 
lematic, yet there is reason to believe that at some time it will be 
actively resumed, although this will be brought about only by the ex- 
haustion of richer ore deposits of other regions which now supply 
the local demand. Thus the mining of brown iron ore will not be 
an important industry in this region for many years, as the Lake Su- 
perior, New York, and foreign ores will long continue to compete 
with the local ores. The local operations are necessarily small on 
account of the manner of occurrence of the ore and so can not com- 
pete with operations in these regions, where mining can be done on 
a very extensive scale. 


Limonite Mines of the Cambrian and Ordovician Limestones (“Valley Ores”). 


Many of the descriptions that follow are copied from reports of 
Frederick Prime,° who had opportunity to study some of the mines 
in operation which have now long been abandoned. ‘The numbers 
refer to the map locations. The quoted descriptions are inclosed in 
quotation marks; notes not so indicated are added by the present 
writer. 





6Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Repts. DD, 1872, and D3, vol. 1, 1883. 


53 


2. Abraham George’s mine.—‘‘Leased by the Saucon Iron Co. This mine is lying 
idle and is full of water. The sides are too much washed to see anything of the 
nature of the deposit, further than it occurred associated with a black damourite 
’ slate or shale, which is probably Utica shale, judging lithologically from the charac- 
ter and position of identically the same shale in Lehigh county near Breinigsville. 
his shale is full of pyrites, which take fire on exposure, owing to their oxidation, 
and set fire to the carbon in the slate’’.? 

The excavation is approximately 200 feet long E and W, 90 feet wide, and 40 
feet deep. There seems to have been some underground workings. No rock is ex- 
posed in the sides of the pit, but limestone appears in a small pit south of the large 
openings. Water from this pit has been pumped to the mill of the Bath portland 
cement plant. 


3. William Chapman’s mine.—‘When visited, about 3 to 10 feet of stripping had 
been removed and there the pit presented a promising appearance. The mine had 
not been developed sufficiently to say whether there was a large body of ore or not. 
A shaft had been sunk to the depth of 65 feet, which was said to be all the way 
down in solid ore, but this statement is probably incorrect. The well for water 
had been sunk down 125 feet. At a depth of 30 feet limestone was struck and 
going through this, ore was said to be found underneath it (?). The ore is mostly 
of the bombshell variety, and inside of the hollow bombs white (damourite) clay 
frequently occurs, but at the depth to which the mine had been excavated no white 
clay was to be seen; an exception in this respect to the usual oceurrence’’.§ 


4. Aaron Lerch’s mine.— ‘Leased by the Crane Iron Co. In this mine black clay 
(decomposed Utica shale) is found in which there is a deposit of red ore (so-called 
“ted rock ore’) ; the clay occurs beneath a small deposit of white clay, over which 
lies brown hematite in which white and gray clay occurs sparingly. The red ore 
also occurs in the bottom of the mine underneath the black clay. The sides of the 
mine were very much washed and it was difficult to see much of the nature of the 
deposit’’.® 


This is one of the largest open pits of the region. It is very irregular in shape 
and about 1,600 feet in width at the widest part. At one place limestone is exposed 
in the bottom of the pit. 


A typical analysis of this ore by James Gayley in 1878 gave the following results: 


TTT hls, Sh oo. loeiabshe ks We a 2 dd wie d's 43.59 
aT Oe ort! yet, eS) a bea le ld. Ce Kip as ote we 1.34 
Sdn to te Sp eve al til let gS ats 2,36 
an ee eee ea Be ie a a oe el ee Aiea b's Pda 
St eT ee ES rr re tk dw i eR eels 0% <bean .62 
CA od Sn Be USES OEE, Ne ee a Dak 
Sen Pee PR ee Bie EVs Sec) cei o, . give. ai tlei’el'v\ tv elletsg Se sive. o 4 «! 2381 
mk A abe gle a ts CAS (ES SA a ee trace 

ae ee MRC PM ibe ep aeewe 7.69 








7. Henry Goetz’s mine.—“Leased by the Coleraine Iron Co. This is one of the 
oldest mines in the county and was finally abandoned in 1877 as being worked out. 
When visited in 1875-76 the bottom was full of water and ore was being taken out 
near the top at the northern end, where a little red ore was left. As seen close to 
the bottom the ore occurs in and above a black clay (Utica shale), which con- 
taining a good de i areasite—oxidizes rapidly on exposure 
and the surface is covered with an efflorescence of sulphate of iron. <A little reddish 
sandstone was seen on the dump, but could not be found on the sides of the mines, 
sIthough carefully searched after. Over the black clay there occurred in spots 
heavy bodies of white clay, in some places containing ore, in others none whatever. 
It is probable that the Utica shale seen here is a remnant of the period when the 
whole of the limestone was covered by the slates (No. III) and that being caught 
in a synclinal of limestone it was preserved from erosion at the time when the 
great body of slates was washed away. Many thousands of tons of ore have been 
taken from this excavation and it is a curious coincidence that the mine should have 
been exhausted just about the time that its aged owner died’’.’° 








tIdem, D3, pp. 197-198. 
SIdem, p. 198. 
*Idem, p. 198. 

19Tden, pp. 199-200. 


54 


The excavation covers several acres and is one of the largest mines of the quad- 
rangle. The pit is now about 75 feet in depth. The ore from this mine averaged 
43.59 per cent iron and 23.30 per cent silica. 


This mine was one of the Jargest in the quadrangle and one of the few mines 
from which statistics of production can be obtained. Practically all the ore went 
to the Crane Iron Co. at Catasauqua, from whose books the statistics were ob- 
tained. The annual production ranged from 250 tons in 1870 to 4,941 tons in 1845, 
and the total production from 1841 to 1888 was 98,486 tons. 


8. Gernet’s minme.—“This has not been worked for some time and its sides are 
much washed. At one point in the mine there is a dark liver-brown clay (Utica 
shale) containing glistening particles of pyrites. On the dump there Is a little 
white clay.’ ? 


9. Milton H. Kohler’s mine.—‘On the north side of this excavation there is a 
heavy deposit of white clay coming to the surface; the pit being chiefly worked at 
the west end, where there is a good show of ore, a good deal of which is of the 
bombshell variety; this occurs embedded in seams of white clay. Close to it there 
are limestone boulders, formed by the dissolution of limestone, containing thin beds 
of hydromica slate. The white clay seems in part at least to have been formed by 
the solution of limestone containing damourite.”’ *? 


11. Simon Ritter’s mine.-—‘This is not being worked at present. On the south 
side of the mine occurs limestone, much waterworn, dipping S. 38° E., 34°, this 
being the only certain dip, although there are several points in the bottom of the 
mine where the limestone appears. Close to this dip there is a little white clay 
but not in any abundance. It is possible that the ore has here been washed into 
a depression of the limestone and was not originally deposited there; in which 
case ore need only be looked for in the sides and not at any great depth. One very 
important fact militates against this view, and that is that in an abandoned mine 
on the opposite side of the road, now filled up, there occurs black clay (Utica shale) 
containing great lumps of iron pyrites, which turn on exposure to sulphate of 
iron and effloresce. This would tend very strongly to prove that the ore of both 
the mines is in place, and the limestone is the underlying Trenton limestone (No. 
II), in which no further search for ore need be made. There also occur large flints 
associated with the iron ore.” 74 


12. William Ritter’s mine.—‘‘This is not being worked, and the machinery has 
been removed. This deposit is apparently confined to the surface and is not in 
place. It looks as if the ore had been washed in during the Drift period, and it is 
associated with pieces of flint and boulders of limestone. The sides are much - 
washed.” 74 


16. Solomon Hummels mine.—‘At this place only the stack for the washer has 
been erected and 5 or 6 shafts sunk within a diameter of 50 feet. ‘There is a great 
deal of large lump ore at the mouth of each shaft, so that the locality presents a 
promising appearance.” 1° 


17. Samuel Schorte’s mine—“This has not been worked for some time, so that 
as usual in such cases the sides are much washed. In the most eastern part of the 
pit there is a little white clay on the north side, containing fragments of cantourite 
slate, but this is too little exposed to justify any coneclusicns. In the most northern 
part of the mine white clay again appears, which is apparently stratified; and be- 
low this, yellow clay containing angular flints, which also apparently occur in the 
white clay; but the white clay here contains a good deal of yellow clay—also 
plastic—disseminated through it, so that when moistened the whole presents a 
yellow appearance. As this part of the pit is inaccessible it could not be viewed 
very closely. At the east and north end there is an abundance of ore aistributed 
through the yellow clay.” 7° ; 


18. J. Beck’s mine.—‘‘Leased by EF. Jobst. This has not been worked since 1873. 
But little could been seen on this account, but the whole deposit looked as if it 
was a secondary one and not in place. A good deal of ore has been taken out, how- 
ever, which is not often the case with deposits of a secondary character.” ** 


———— 


11Jdem, p. 200. 
12Tdem, p. 200. 
13Tdem, pp. 198-199. 
14Tdem, p. 200. 
15Tdem, p. 200. 
16Tdem, pp. 200-201. 
17Tdem, p. 201. 
18Tdem, p. 201. 


55 


19. William G. Beck’s mine.—‘‘This has not been worked since 1873. The west 
end is inaccessible on account of water. The ore apparently occurs stratified in 
white clay, with white clay over it. At this mine the white clay comes within 6 
inches of the surface and is about 15 to 18 feet thick, and there are alternate layers 
of ore and clay about 12 feet thick.» From the small exposure it was impossible 
to arrive at any conclusion as to whether the ore was in place or was a secondary 
deposit.” 78 


20. John Lawall’s mine.—‘Leased by the Crane Iron Co. This has not been 
worked since 1874. In the middle of the north side a single spot of white clay is 
visible. In places small fragments of slaty limestone containing damourite and small 
bowlders can be seen. It looks like a secondary deposit. The ore was found to be 
so unsatisfactory that work was stopped at the mine in the fall cf 1878.” 

Joseph Hunt, assistant superintendent of the Crane Iron Co., furnished the 
following partial analysis made by Mr. James Giayley, the company’s chemist: 


SOTTO Teale PSs 8 Pie ee ec eS, See eR ae 24.62 
RIATTEINOS, ott ar Meee A TEN arc! cig Slain kf eg Gratarat en ele, herded tdi bles 1.74 
oh a a Ta Eel 9s Cee aR a a Mi eB A 2.92 
IE CRITE: ad Sia ley | Ske CRIP neg eo Rea am ie PEIN, RL ake aaa oe 42.84 
rere EC Ul Mma a Be a S'S: sheds 8 leo olenat Alege ecards Theme a ah 0.431 


23. Gernst & Heller's mine-—‘‘Has not been worked since 1874. On the washed 
sides are small pieces of fresh and partly decomposed damourite slate and iron. 
The former is of a gray color. There are numerous pieces of quartzite both round 
and angular from the size of a large watermelon to very small pieces. The ore on 
the dump is much of it very light, and the large lumps in some cases contain brec- 
ciated damourite slate, as if this had been cemented together by the hydrated 
ferric oxide.” 2° - 

25. Dr. B. C. Walter’s mine.—“The main excavation has not been worked since 
1874 and was much washed. In 1876, when visited, new shafts were being sunk. 
These had in some eases struck white clay, with limestone below it, but very little 
ore being met with. The outlook when visited was not very promising.” *° 


28. Thomas Richard, Jr. mine-——““This consists of a tract of several acres, covered 
with ore pits and surface excavations. The ore apparently only occurs in surface 
soil, and does not extend to any depth.” 7? 


38. Henry Hoch’s mine.—The first ore hauled to the furnace of the Crane Iron 
Co. at Catasauqua came from this mine. It was worked at intervals from 1840 
to 1908. It is an open pit mine about 300 feet long, 200 feet wide, and 75 feet 
deep. The ore was unusually red in color, owing to the presence of much goethite, 
and averaged about 48 per cent iron. An anaylsis made October 30, 1890, by the 
Crane Iron Co. of high-grade ore is as follows: 


ener Comte rere Geter cee! Oe ee Cote a bec 48.308 « 
LPP aye ally ae. hain Se ee rain Miter Sots cok amnenaiae Sane ean Tm .340 

ORO Re eee a es LS, a. Waste, a talac ewido ws dhe olabaeale. dw. sae trace 
SARL UR Ca Ne NR OE RE NBC AOE Bie I ARS oscar 11:850 
Puaee MMM GU SRE NE Ls ah. dn 28) Ara gic BRU Adee GOR PEAS aid thhee 2,927 
ON CS IM adh! Sate 21S Noa ad hin ot chet Wa al a] Wks eh gue) as trace 


The ore was regularly distributed through the clay in the form of large masses, 
which could be picked from the clay by, hand, and also as small pieces called “wash 
ore’, which were obtained by passing through a long washer. 


Fairly complete statistics of production except for the last few years the mine 
was worked, have been obtained from the books of the Crane Iron Co., which used 
practically all the ore. The annual production according to these statistics, ranged 
from 24 tons in 1860 to 4,073 tons in 1840. The total production from 1840 to 
1898 was 29,129 tons. 


42. Samuel Lerch’s mine.—“This was formerly leased by the Coleraine Iron Co, 
who took out about 50 tons of ore and then abandoned it. The excavation is now 
almost filled up, and is overgrown with underbrush. The ore was taken out of 





19Tdem, p. 202. 
20Tdem, p. 208. 
21Tdem, p. 203. 


56 


drift and surface soil. There seems to be a good deal of ore in the surface of the 
field: but it is very questionable whether it would pay to wash the surface soil for 
PP ate 


4?. Daniel OC. Kline’s mine.—An old open-cut iron mine. The only evidence that 
it was in limestone is the presence of fragments of rotten limestone in the material 
washed from the ore. 

“The limonite occurs in decomposed hydromiea slate. The laminations or dip of 
the slate is S. 25°—80°. The dip is variable and ranges from S. 10° W. to 10 
Be? 


48. Schneider’s mine-—“The ore is associated with decomposed slate and clay. 
A number of large openings have been made.” ?* 


54. Greene mine—A very large excavation. The mine was owned and operated 
by the Saucon Iron Co. The ore contained some zine. In the lowest workings 
considerable pyrite was found. The mine was closed when the Friedensville zine 
mine pumps were stopped, as the water was too great to permit profitable mining, 
although a large body of ore was in sight at the time. 


68. Wint mine.—“The limonite occurs in lenticular bodies in decomposed sandy 
hydromica slate. Thin beds of limestone have been found in the mine. The ore 
deposit is irregular. The dips observed are W. 10°—15° and S. 45° W. 15°. The 
mine appears to be located near the base of the slates. The ore is very siliceous, 
owing to the large amount of sand which occurs in the slate.” 7° 


71. Bahl mine—This was one of the largest limonite mines of the Saucon 
valley. The ore, which averaged about 42 per cent iron, occurred in rather definite 
veins about 10 feet wide. In addition much ore of the bombshell variety was dis- 
seminated throughout the clay. A. large amount of carbonate ore wes mined. The 
mine was worked entirely by open cut. The excavation was about 100 feet in 
depth and in spring much clay from the sides would slide into the pit. 

It is estimated that 500,000 tons were taken out of this mine by the Thomas Iron 
Co., the Bethlehem Iron Co., and the Coleraine Iron Co. 

A paint company, located nearby, used part of the mud-dam material for paint 
for many years. The Bingen Brick Co. at the present time is using the material 
in the manufacture of brick. 


Limonite Mines of the Cambrian Quartzite (‘“Mountain Ores’’). 


76.—A. long abandoned pit in which only clay is exposed. Small pieces of Cam- - 
brian quejtzites near the pit indicate that the ore was in the quartzites. 

77. Thomas Richard's mine.—‘‘In the open cut this is only worked in the 
east end, where there is a good body of ore, which seems to be cut off further east 
by white clay. The ore occurs apparently instratified in the white clay. To the west 
a shaft has been sunk down 107 feet to the ore. In going down a body of damourite 
slate and clay was struck, which at a greater depth turns into a blue clay. Under- 
neath the ore there is said to be black dirt, but none could be seen. The bed 
is said to be 27 to 40 feet thick, but this had to be taken.on hearsay evidence, as 
the mine was so closely timbered that it could not be measured. East of this 
another opening has been made in the rogdside, but so recently that only stripping 
was being taken out and washed.” ?° 

This mine, which was worked for about 25 years, was closed about 1900. 


78-80.—This group comprises a line of old workings that seems to indicate a 
persistent ore body that was rather closely confined to aj definite horizon in the 
Cambrian quartzite. As the rocks dip steeply to the north and strike parallel to 
the hill the old workings appear as a wide and deep trench along the side of the 
hill. The ore is said to have been found in decomposed slate and clay. The mud 
dam deposits from these mines are dug and used for building sand. | 

22Tdem, p. 196. 

238Tdem, p. 235. 

24Tdem, p. 230. 

25Idem, p. 234. 

26Tdem, p. 196. 


BT 


8/.—BHxtensive working are indicated by the size and depth of the old pit. The 
Crane Iron Co. worked the mine. One shaft was 67 feet deep. 


82.—An old shaft mine, worked by Laubach & Riegel. 


83.—This shaft mine was worked for 18 years by Dr. Madden. The workings have 
now caved, and the size of the pits formed shows that a large amount of ore was 
mined. 


84.—Wassergass iron mine.—The mine is unique in that about 15 feet of coarse 
pebbly sandstone, which dips to the north at an average angle of 75°, forms sj dis- 
tinct footwall. The ore was formed by the replacement of certain layers of the 
quartzite and searcely affected the adjoining strata. The ore was mined on either 
side of the road. 


85. Daniel Schwarte’s mine.— ‘There are about 15 feet of surface soil above the 
clay and ore. In the west end there is a mass of flint or quartzite colored black by 
iron and intermingled with ore, which is all broken up, over which lies bedded gray 
flint, and beneath the ore white clay. In the middle and east end the show of ore 
is better. The pit is worked at these points and contains ore as far down as it is 
worked. Where seen clay occurs intermingled with and apparently underlies the 
ore. In the east end the ore apparently dips southeast. The middle of the mine is 
leaner than the east end. The mine has been worked many years and a large amount 
of ore taken out of it, but present appearances would indicate that it is not far 
from being exhausted.” °* 


Prime gives the following anaylsis of the ore from this mine by Mr. D. McCreath: 





De he ty ORI SS ae aera NE Lge, aay a 34.000 
RE Ree IA OE PN coo Settee tr okie ate le ke teas vo 6 te 115 
CEERI S Sia 90a a diel Cora a .020 
eM MM tt teh ne eho Ser tends a a We ala oar eyeye wera ale. kone .676 
(0 MASE. USS a ee 37.695 





This mine shows more clearly than any other mine in the region the way 
in which the ore has been formed by replacement of the yellow chert. Along the 
strike of the beds certain portions have been almost entirely changed to limonite, 
but other portions consist of almost pure chert with only enough iron present to 
color it yellow. 


86. Trexler & Kline’s mine.—‘‘This pit is now abandoned and apparently ex- 
hausted, having been worked to the underlying ‘Potsdam sandstone. White clay 
has immediately overlaid the sandstone, since remains of it can be seen in the cre- 
vices on the upper surface of the latter. It may be possible, although not very 
probable, that more ore will be found on descending deeper. At this pit,: also, 
white clay underlies the ore.’ °° 


According to Prime, samples of the ore were collected and sent for analysis to 
Mr. David McCreath, who found: 








——_——— 


tine oe a ee eo cp ner ec ee ee 36.500 
Bra Cee ae ae Fc nes Mik ate nlp elaaa eA Say shee Kia's 0 1.325 
PEO ON et Ae: A. SOR ie eras CR rah te ete ane a id 0.107 
ESSEC Pe ge Bley AR WE TO PAL AEOR, Ca a SS FO 0.547 
POMEL GCOS LCT Cir dite We. o Moca nia atese ls aipratovegh « PAE » 5s bL:215 





87. Jessie Kline’s mine.—‘‘In this pit, now abandcned, the ore and clay can be 
seen conformable with the underlying Potsdam sandstone, the latter containing 
Scolithus. There are places where it looks almost as if the’ sandstone was running 
into limonite.” °° 





2TPennsylyvania Second Geol. Survey Rept. DD, p. 26, 1872. 
28Tdem, -p. 27. 
29Tdem, p. 27. 


58 


Prime gives the following anaylsis: 





Tron Oo Boo a 8e CR PO ee ae ee ee 47.200 


Mangantse: 26.0255 Vas oe cn cae te eee ee eee cee eer 2.709 
Sulphur ys esse ae o teciatg s aciG es eee ee et ere 0.039 
Phosphorus sites wesw 4)08 ss ae rare eames eae ce eae eee 0.075 
Tnsoltible:) resid le “sea. ce cn ee ee ee 14.980 


Near this mine and édjoining mines it is possible to find many fragments of 
rock that grade into ore in such a manner as to leave no doubt that Prime’s sur- 
mise is correct. 





90. Henry Kline’s mine.—‘‘Leased by Jobst and There are two openings 
here. At the smaller one, which lies just below the gneiss of the South Mountain 
there was a small nest of black oxide of manganese, 8 inches thick, which has 
since been worked out. The ore lay directly against the Potsdam sandstone. There 
is white clay in this pit, which is very gritty and is in part decomposed Potsdam 
sandstone. The gneiss, under the sandstone, is granitic, very quartzose and contains 
a little martite or red hematite. In the larger pit the mine had been only reworked 
a single day when it was visited. There was not much ore in sight, the little that 
was seen lying in white and yellow clay. At the east end there is Potsdegm sand- 
stone in the bottom, apparently in place, with an undeterminable dip. The ore is 
here very close to the sandstone and must be sought for in depth, if present at all.’’*° 


iAccording to Prime, samples of it were analyzed by Mr. David McCreath, .- with 
the following result: 


a 


Tra: hs A is Pe ee eT ee IR eee 30.100 
Mangenese. 2 dncoira 2 3. SOs atone. otek ees eee eee .489 
Sulphur: <°.3.2ee Want senate aot eee Pe Pa ess .062 
Phosphortisec foe ic es RE ee ee oe ee ae .299 
Insolable: residues...9 cok os 25 Gah ah verte eee ae 43.0385 


91. Henry Kline’s mine.—‘At this pit, which is abandcned, nothing ean be 
seen. A shaft has been sunk through the clay. 30 or 40 feet, but from the character 
of the material on the dump little or no ore has been found.” ** 


92, 938 & 94. Martin Kemmerer’s mine.—‘The first pit is now abandoned and full 
of water. Shafts have been sunk around it and filled up. On the dumps can be 
seen a little pipe ore and white clay. [Nos. 98 and 94] are both abandoned and grass 
grown. The ore has either been exhausted or deeper workable deposits of ore have 
been touched by the shafts.” *? 


95, 96. Keck & Ritter’s mine.—‘‘Leased by Emaus Iron Co. [No. 95] is abandoned 
and no ore can be seen on the banks. In [No. 96] the ore is sporadically distributed 
in yellow clay. Not far from the bottom there is a bed of white clay about 6 inches 
thick. It may be that the ore in the bottom is in place, but it does not present that 
appearance. There is aj great deal of flint associated with the ore. The mine does 
not present a very promising appearance.’’*? 


Prime says that the ore which was analyzed by Mr. A. S. McCreath, yielded: 


Tss00 inks tere etalk ied ae ao kha POS an oe ie ae ee 39.250 
Manranesatl rage co 33k ee a ee oie eee amet be 
Sulphur ics Wee ier et cass sks ee ee ee .029 
Phosphorus a3 ne on Ss 2 ORT Ae a ee 149 


Insoluble residtes 2... os: ). Cee eee 21.880 


rr a a cS LS 


59 


7, 98, 99. G. Kline’s mine.—No. 97 “is abandoned; there is a great deal of ump 
ore on the dump. The sides are caved: in, but at one point the Potsdam sandstone 
was seen decomposed to a beautiful variegated sand. The ore was taken from clay 
and damourite slate directly overlying the sandstone. Of the two pits at [No. 98] 
the southerly one shows nothing. A drift has been driven in close to it in which 
nothing can be distinguished and which does not penetrate very far. On the other 
pit and at [No. 99] nothing can be seen, but a number of shafts nave been sunk 
and there is quite a good deal of lump ore on the dumps, apparently enough to pay 
for working when the present depressed period in the iron Andustry improves.” *4 


102, 103. Hottenstein’s mine.—‘Potsdam sandstone underlies and overhangs pit 
[No. 102] and in this there are boulders of sandstone. At [No. 103], which is also 
not worked, there is sandstone in the west end, probably boulders. But nothing 
could be seen relating to the nature and position of the ore.’ *5 


104. Milton Apple’s mine.—‘At this pit there are boulders of Potsdam sandstone 
and debris from which ore has been taken. A shaft 20 feet deep shows the same in 
the bottom. This pit was not being worked when visited.” *°_ 


105. Kipping & Holsbach’s mine.—‘This pit was not being worked. Only yellow 
clay and drift could be seen, there being no ore in sight. At one point a drift has 
been run in, which is now fallen shut.” *' 


106, 107, 108, 109. Conrad Seam’s mine.—‘At [No. 107] can be seen first surface 
drift, then white clay, next ore and finally white clay again to the top of the water 
in the bottom of the pit; the appearance of the ore is good. [No. 106] was being 
worked for the Allentown Iron Co.,; the ore occurs in white and yellow clay. [No. 
108]. which is not being worked, shows ore on the south side in white clay. |No. 
109] was not being worked. A sample was taken from the opening [No. 105], it 
being all wash ore, and an analysis of all the constituents it contained made by Mr. 
D. McCreath as a type of the ores of Lehigh County.” °° 


McCreath’s analysis, quoted by Prime, is as follows: 





Te) te Fae cs Woe hee nica kok tee Ager ae 69.714 
CBRE Boa GEMS Sa Se ae ge ar 1.292 
SURI AE ee ae Pe A ans, vials love wee hd > 66 bneca es 2.388 
DE Be se aA be 8 S55 os gS ANEE 2 ST A A ee .300 
Ba ee IER ria. Gio gy Gilt ees 0 view OLT 
BSNS Ty ease, Pare aks 5 GL § Yous 4 12k. alle le pace yap 035 
ee NURSE TSIEN L IT er eI alin 2 as sue Dh telini e) adn hs ose. A48 
DRIER OTN Maal SMe he ew ee Ce cis oe a 5S wai ws'e olelle abe ove 11.340 
Dyce Ue gS ES alla SS at CE ep ee ee 13.915 
Pe Hee a dy a, MME at ia eels ey po clancta. 4: bare aber 48.800 
VR Pere T im OS Shea c 1a hy Bigs a gosta SY oils) ay mid allel’ sctinie “shes .900 
NIE REM IE Six eae Men Fl Loot ay SR ath ds veins « STE o CoN fe wt .014 
OSE aT ha Ui ST at Se airy 2 en a aan OO a 196 

99.749 


110, 111, 112. Whitman's mine.—‘‘Leased by Emaus Iron Co. [No. 110] is being 
worked; the ore occurs in white and yellow clay, there being but little ore in sight 
when the mine was visited. [Nos. 111 and 112] are numerous small openings not 
worked and the sides too much washed to see anything.” 

118. This excavation seems to have been an iron mine. Numerous masses of 
sandstones and chalcedonic quartzites and some limonite were seen. The limonite 
shows clearly that it was formed by replacement of the quartzite. 


116. ‘Red’ mine.—Mining at this locality waj carried on over an extensive area, 
the refuse being thrown in the old workings. The abundance of quartzite fragments 
in the clay seems to prove that the ore was of the ‘“mountain”’ variety. 


118. Newmeyer’s mine—‘‘The limonite is deposited in irregular lenticular bodies. 
The dip appears to be undulating to the eastward 5° to 15°. A large excavation has 
been made to a depth of about 40 feet at the deepest point.’ *° 





34Tdem, p. 29. 

35Tdem, p. 29. 

86Tdem, p. 29. 

87Idem, p. 29. 

38Idem, pp. 29-30. 
29Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey Rept. D3, vol. 1, p. 225, 1883. 


60 


121. Hrdman & Cooper’s sand pit (mine.)—“Loecated on the south side of the 
Center Valley-Saucon Valley Post Office pike 1 mile west by north of Center Valley. 
The limonite is associated with decomposed sandstone and hydromieca slate. A large 
amount of siliceous matter occurs in the ore. Decomposed feldspar is found on the 
surface. The pit is close to the edge of the feldspathic rocks.” *° 


122. Sill & Jordan’s mine.—“There are several small openings 20 to 30 feet deep 
and 10 to 20 feet wide. The jlimonite cecurs in clay and sand; no slate is visible.” *1 


123. Hiram Hisenhart’s mine.—The shaft is about 35 feet deep. A small amount 
of ore has been taken out. 


124. Bachman mine.—The Bachman mine was opened in 1887 and worked for 
about five years. About 15,000 tons of good ore was taken out. The ore became 
lean, and the mine was abandoned. The great masses of yellow chert in the east 
part of the pit show conclusively that the ore was formed by replacement of Cam- 
brian quartzite. Some of the ore contains considerable wavellite and cacoxenite, but 
so far as known no objection was ever raised on account of the phosphorus present 
in the ore. 


125. Kauffman mine—The Kauffman mine was similar to the Bachman mine. 
It was worked by the Crane Iron Co. 


127. Blank mine.—The Blank mine was operated intermittently for about five 
years and was closed in 1888. The ore was of good quality and was high in man- 
ganese. The vein was fairly thick, but the mine failed to pajy because of poor 
equipment. 


128. Wharton mine.—The Wharton mine, located about 2 miles east of Heller- 
town, was first opened by George Wharton in 1852, who worked it as an open pit 
for several years. ‘The mine was abandoned and no work done until 1872, when it 
passed into the possession of the Saucon Iron Co. It was then reopened and worked 
for about 12 years and then again abandoned, as it could not be profitably worked 
longer by the open-cut method. In 1884 the Thomas Iron Co. purchased the property 
and at once began to sink a shaft. It was worked more or less continually until 
1910, when it was finally abandoned, because the old shaft had been forced out of 
plumb by the pressure of the clay that slipped down the slope and it was not 
thought advisable to bear the expense of a new shaft. 


The ore was found in yellow, white, and red clays segregated in veinlike bodies 
5 to 10 feet in width which in general headed eastward, parallel to the direction 
of the valley. At the 150-foot level one of these ore bodies which had a high angle 
of dip toward the mountain was traced for about 1,100 feet. The ore also was found 
in large and. small masses irregularly disseminated throughout the clay. Great 
masses of chert, some of which were 4 feet in diameter, were rather common in 
association with the clay and ore. The accompanying map of the mine workings 
shows the relation and direction of the main ore bodies. 





#0Idem, p. 2382. 
41Tdem, p. 233. 


‘eq ‘UMOWOTPH JO 4Svo Soplu Z| ‘VULUT UOLT UOJAVY AA JO dvyy ‘G ons 








413934 0v2 002 2~—S—S—té<OSZS 02! 08 





EOS NsdO 


BS: 


N 
\ —_ 


62 . 


The ore was high in manganese and was consequently always in demand. A 
large number of amalyses shows that the ore contained an average of about 43 per 
cent iron, 19 per cent silica, 4.21 per cent alumina, 2.18 per cent manganese, 0.377 
per cent phosphorus, and 6.78 per cent moisture. This mine was one of the very 
few limonite mines of the region from which shipments of carbonate iron ore was 
made. This ore is described below (p. 63). 

The Wharton mine has probably yielded a larger production than any other 
limonite mine in the Cambrian quartzite of the Allentown quadrangle. The total 
production seems to have been more than 200,000 tons. Statistics for only the later 
years in which the mine was worked are available. : 


Production of Wharton limonite mine. 


ee 














: Average iron 
Year Tons content 
1800 Scat ee ee ee a eee ne 498 57.70 
TOO ee 2 PS Re eee be ee S| ee ee 2,616 58.02 
TOOL | coc. See ae ene, ee ee 6,147 50.59 
TOO: aS eS a ene Se ee 2,074 42).56 
1008). Sa eee Se Se eee Ee 2,096 42.85 
190 al iste eee 6,141 37.26 
1906 Ser eA ee eee 3.405 38.90 
1906 Sse Bre eo Soke geen eeeeta ee eee 4,315 37.50 
LOOT) See ee ee ee ea ee ee a 3,478 38. 36 
1906 ee ek hs Roe See, ee eee 4,833 40.91 
1900 Va SS a2 ee ee ee oe ee 5,194 42.17 
TOTO ed Se RA ee ee ne 3,986 42.03 


—<———— ee ieee 
= ; se 


In 1901 in addition to the limonite there were 252 tons of carbonate iron ore 
shipped and in the following years 104 tons. 

129. Koch mine-—The Koch mine was an open-cut mine located a short distsmee 
east of the Wharton mine. It was extensively worked first by the Saucon Iron Co. 
and later by the Thomas Iron Co. The main body, which was almost flat, had a width 
of 2 to 3 feet but the larger part of the product of the mine consisted of ‘‘wejsh 
ore” that was distributed through the clay. 

The ore was low in iron, averaging only about 31.94 per cent and 0.927 per cent 
phosphorus and 2.48 per cent manganese. 

During the last period of operation, from 1902 to April 15, 1907, the mine pro- 
duced 20,753 tons of ore, all of which was hauled to the Hellertown furnace. 

130. Emery or Beatty open-cut mine.—This mine adjoins the Koch mine on 
the east and contains the same kind of ore. The cre was high in phosphorus, 
averaging about 1 per cent. The open cut and shaft together produced about 20,000 
tons of ore. The mine was closed in 1890. Pebbly Cambrian quartzite which 
strikes N. 40° E. and dips 78° NW., outcrops on the south side of the pit. 

181. Emery or Beatty mine shaft—This shaft, about 50 feet in depth, is located 
some distance east of the open pit. Good ore was obtained. 

182. Geisinger’s mine.—Geisinger’s mine is a pit about 40 feet in depth which 
shows no rock in place. There is little doubt that the ore occurs in the Cambrian 
quartzite. . 

133. Haupt’s iron mine.—Very extensive mining has been done at Haupt’s iron 
mine both by shafts and open cuts. The mine was opened in 1853 and was in 
operation in 1870. One company is said to have mined 100,000 tons of ore, and 
another company operated the mine later. Umber and ocher were encountered but 
were not utilized to much extent until recent years when umber has been dug in a 
nearby pit. : 


Iron Carbonate (Siderite) Ore. 


Considerable iron carbonate ore is present in the lower workings 
of many of the limonite mines, both in the limestones and the quartz- 
ites, and its occurrence and origin have been already discussed. It 
is well, however, to call attention specifically to the importance of 
this class of ore in the Allentown quadrangle, for it hag been ignored 


INDEX SLIP. 





® 


WEDDERBURN, J. H. MAcLAGAN.—On the Applications of Quaternions in the 
Theory of Differential Equations. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 709-721. 


Quaternions: Applications of Quaternions in the Theory of Differential 
Equations. 
J. H. MACLAGAN WEDDERBURN. 
Trans. Roy, Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, pp. 709-721. 


Traquair, R. H.—The Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, pp. 723-739. 


Devonian (Lower) Fishes of Gemiinden. 
R. H. TrRAQvAiR. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, pp. 723-739. 


Drepanaspis Gemiindenensis, Schl. TRaQquarr: Lower Devonian Fishes of 


Gemiinden, 
| ‘Trans. Roy, Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 725. 


Coccosteus angustus, Traquair. Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, p, 732 


Phiycteenaspis Germanica, Traquair, Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 733. 


Gemiindina Stirtet, Traquair. Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden., 
48 Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. xl.,°1903, p. 734. 


Hunsriickia problematica, Traquair. Lower Devonian Fishes of Gemiinden. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, p. 736. 


mance 


Kipston, Rogerr. — The Fossil Plants of the Carboniferous Rocks of 
Canonbie, Dumfriesshire, and of Parts of Cumberland and Northum- 
berland. 

Trans. Roy, Soc, Edin., vol, xl., 1903, PP. 741-833. 


Carboniferous Fossil Plants of Canonbie, Dumfriesshire, and bf Partsof * 
Cumberland and Northumberland. / 
R. KIDsTON, 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin,, vol. xl, 1908, ie 741-833. 


2 


Fossil Plants from Dumfriesshire, Cumberland, and Northumberland. 
R. KipsTon. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 741-833. 


Eskdalia, Kidston, n.g., Description of. 
R. KIpsTON, 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 750. 


‘alamites (Calamitina) pauctramis, Weiss, Description of. 
R. Kipsron. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x]., 1903, p. 789. 


Lepidodendron Glincanum, Kichwald, sp., Description of. 
R. Krpsron. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1908, p. 762. 


Lepidodendron fusiforme, Corda, sp., Description of. 
Rk. Kipsron. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 809. 


Lepidodendron Volkmannianum, Sternb., Description of. 
R. KipsTon. . 
Trans, Roy. Soe. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 821. 


Stigmaria (? Stigmariopsis) rimostiformis, Kidston, n.sp. 
R. Kipston. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 767. 


Paleostachya Etiingshausent, Kidston, u.sp., Description of. 
R. KipsTon. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1908, vol. xl., p. 794. 


Pinakodendron Macconochiei, Kidston, u.sp., Description of. 
Rh. Krpsron. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 798. 


Rhabdocarpus curvatus, Kidston, n.sp., Description of. 
R. KIpsTon. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 826. 


Sigillaria Canobiana, Kidston, sp., Description of. 
R. Kipsron. 
Trans. Roy. Sov. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 765. 


Cordaicarpus planus, Kidston, n.sp. 
R. KIDsTON. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p, 826. 


Peacu, B. N., and J. Horne.—The Canonbie Coalfield: Its Geological 
Structure and Relations to the Carboniferous Rocks of the North oi 
England and Central Scotland. 

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x]., 1908, pp. 835-877. 


Horne, Joun, and B. N. Peacu.—The Canonbie Coalfield: Its Geological 
Structure, and Relations to the Carboniferous Rocks of the North of 
England and Central Scotland. 

Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 835-877. 


5) 


Canoubie Coalfield: Its Geological Structure and Relations to the 
Carboniferous Rocks of the North of England and Central Scotland. 
B. N. PracH and JoHN Horne. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 835-877. 


Canonbie Coalfield: Estimate of Coal Supply in concealed Coalfield. 
B. N. Peacu and Jonn Horne, 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, p. 867. 


Carboniferous Rocks of the Scottish Border: Their Correlation with those in 
the North of England and Central Scotland. 
B. N. Pracu and Joun Horne. 

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 838-868. 


Coalfield of the Canonbie District: Its Geological Structure and Relations 
to the Carboniferous Rocks of the North of England and Central 


Scotland. 
B. N, PEAcH and JouHn HoRNE. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1903, pp. 838-868. 


Traquair, R. H.—Supplementary Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the 
Geological Survey of Scotland in the Upper Silurian Rocks of 
Scotland. 

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, pp. 879-888. 


Silurian (Upper) Rocks of Scotland, Supplementary Report on Fossil Fishes 
collected in the. 


R. H. Traquarr. 
Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, pp. 879-888. 


Fossil Fishes collected in the Upper Silurian Rocks of Scotland, Supple- 
mentary Report on. 
kh. H. Traquair. 
Traus. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, pp. 879-888. 


Alteleaspis tessellata, Traquair, ‘TRaQUAIR: Fossil Fishes from the Upper 
Silurian Rocks of Scotland. 
Traus. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, p. 883. 


Lanarkia korrida, Traquair, Traquair: Fossil Fishes from the Upper 
Silurian Kocks of Scotland. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, p. 882. 


Lasanius armatus, Traquair. Traquair: Fossil Fishes from the Upper 


Silurian Rocks of Scotland. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, p. 887. 


Lasanius problematicus, Traquair. TRaQuair: Fossil Fishes from the Upper 


Silurian Rocks of Scotland. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, p. 886. 


Thelodus Scoticus, Traquair. Traguatr: Fossil Fishes from the Upper | 


Silurian Rocks of Scotland. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl., 1905, p. 880. 





63 


by many persons who have studied the limonite deposits of the Ap- 
palachian region. It has been found in almost every place where 
mining has been carried on within recent years and exposures are 
good. 


The iron carbonate ore is gray and occurs mainly in the form of 
extremely dense, tough, rounded concretions, the largest of which 
are 6 inches in diameter. Bombshell carbonate ore in which the 
cavity is filled with white clay also is common. On exposure to the 
air the ore changes to limonite and the nodules or bombshells readily 
crumble. 


Most of the carbonate ore as mined was associated with so much 
limonite that it was shipped as ordinary ore. A few mines, however, 
made occasional shipments of carbonate ore. The Wharton mine, 
southeast of Hellertown, reported the shipment in 1901 of 252 tons 
of carbonate ore that averaged 36.74 per cent iron and in 1902 of 104 
tons. A complete analysis of carbonate ore from this mine is quoted 
below :*? | 


Analysis of iron carbonate ore from the Wharton mine. 


[A. S. ‘MeCreath, analyst.] 


SN RS PCR MELCC) [i Smee eee a ee ey foe any ee Bi roe a le ee ee 54.385 
SE acoso ktye aM Tey eee ek! iON ee RE i ee ae a a ee ee Ee aE 1.071 
See AECL MeO IT ATOM Le eee We ee out eek beens a we PSN en a ek 3.254 
Pope Segre ONE (COTO LAG ee ate mos See, COA 5 Set NI SA PaO eae RC -010 
Salish US too DOES Teale Sie Bia ETS SR gis, aa spe a Oe ae RO ee VAS gu a 1.457 
a rn eee tee BSE ere Ae ta | i oe ees oe cee a 540 
CE RS PI UT ARE apes Ck NS ek ae a ee i eee ne -540 
et ee Sng a a eh a ne es oe | 112 
FADS CSEENE  gepggh” sR el gE to SE WI as ESS ASE Ss De are ee a ell Ee) - 263 
SOREN ee os ae ee eee seeea| 35.340 
ane 1 TT aA CARES Stig INET CSS asi ce ae ne fe ro a et Ip | 923 
ePIC tiowere ome errr ce ts ey tee een ORL Tr ee a eee a 2.105 
100.000 
Pe oa eedse dl ee ES Ape ES plete RE SEs Rees Boe Ree, ee ee eee ee Oe erarere 43.050 
WE TE SEES ga cat UR A sae ies cele AERIS ed na pe Bae Scat es el ea Speen Oe 2.521 
Berroa ey et Teens ee ee a Lo ek DG Le ee A ed eee aes es 
eed aR TRIS Spee Sena Se veers ee ee ge i a ee 115 





MAGNETITE IRON ORES. 
Distribution. 


Magnetite is widely distributed throughout the pre-Cambrian 
gneisses of the quadrangle as a rather abundant rock-forming min- 
eral. Locally it is segregated in the form of iron ore, which can 
be picked up as float rock in hundreds of places on the mountain. 
There are scores of shallow pits in the mountains where prospectors 
have tried to locate veins of magnetite ore, and specimens about these 
openings commonly indicate the presence of some good ore, -though 


See 


4?Pennsylvania Second Geol, Survey Rept, MM, p. 188, 1879, 


64 


it may be of no commercial importance. Also after heavy rains 
patches of magnetite sand derived from magnetite-bearing rocks or 
magnetite veins are. commonly seen in the gullies on the lower 
slopes of the mountains that are composed of gneiss. Sand of this 
character is especially abundant along the base of the moutain be- 
tween Colesville and Vera Cruz. Careful exploration by means of 
magnetic surveys and the digging of trenches or shallow shafts may 
determine the location of other veins of magnetite as valuable as 
those that have been worked. 

Reports are current that magnetite mines were operated in num- 
erous places in the quadrangle where at present no data can be 
obtained, but as far as can be ascertained the 19 locations shown 
on the map are the only places where there has been any mining of 
consequence. By far the most productive region is that extending 
for 14 miles along the south side of South Mountain north of Vera 
Cruz station. The mines in that region have produced about 300,000 
tons of ore and are by no means exhausted. One of them was re- 
opened and worked for a short time about eight years ago. 


Occurrence. 


The ore of the Vera Cruz region occurs in the form of tabular 
bodies, generally called veins, which have a maximum width of 15 
feet and dip to the south or southeast at angles of 45° to 55° and 
strike approximately east. The veins do not maintain a uniform 
thickness in any of the mines but narrow and widen along both 
the dip and the strike and in places pinch out altogether. In most 
places the veins are parallel to the bands in the inclosing gneiss, but 
in some places they do not maintain this attitude. Though most of 
the veins are in the lighter-colored gneisses, some are associated with 
the dark basic gneisses, and the same vein may pass from one kind of 
eneiss to the other without at all changing its character, as is well 
shown near Vera Cruz station. 

In most places the ore body is sharply delimited against the in- 
closing wall rock, but in some places the transition is so gradual 
that it becomes difficult to determine the limits of the vein. Small 
veinlets of magnetite that form offshoots from the vein commonly 
penetrate some distance into the wall rock, which in most places 
carries some disseminated magnetite. In Jobst’s tunnel, northeast 
of Vera Cruz station, the wall rock between two veins for a distance 
of over 250 feet contained from 15 to 25 per cent iron. 

In the Vera Cruz region, the only place where exact data have 
heen procured, it was long known that three veins, roughly parallel 
in direction, extended for a considerable distance along the mountain. 
When a magnetic survey of a portion of that region was made some 
years ago by Tobias Castelane under the direction of Thomas A 


65 


IXdison it was found that seven veins were present, four of which 
extend for distances of half a mile to 14 miles. On the magnetic 
map (PI. II) two of these veins are seen to unite. The other veins 
are short and apparently contain little workable ore. 


In some of the mines, particularly the Wickert, the vein was olf- 
set by a few small faults, but the continuity and parallelism of the 
major veins indicates little displacement. 


The ore continues to the lowest depths reached iby mining; in 
fact, in several mines the ore improved in quality and the veins 
widened in the lowest levels, and there ig little doubt that the ore 
bodies extend as deep as profitable mining can ever be done. 


Character and Composition. 


The magnetite ores in the region are usually known as the “hard 
ores” or “rock ores” to distinguish them from the brown iron ores. 
Except near the surface, where weathering has removed the pyrite 
and decomposed the feldspar the ore is compact and hard but so 
brittle that it breaks readily. Many different kinds of ore speci- 
mens can be obtained, even in a single mine. | 


The most abundant variety of ore shows somewhat indistinct lami- 
nations, which differ in the quantity of gangue minerals present. 
These layers are from a quarter to half an inch in thickness. In 
some mines considerable ore consists of alternating layers of quartz 
and magnetite that suggest crustification, such as occurs in veins 
formed in open fissures. The bards of pure quartz are as much as 
three-quarters of an inch thick in some places. 


The magnetite occurs in some ores as irregular grains which show 
parting planes, but in most ores there is a tendency for it to form 
in lenses or layers, especially in those ores that consist mainly of 
quartz and magnetite. Some of the magnetite which is present as 
interlocking grains with the gangue minerals or included within 
the quartz is clearly older than other particles which form small 
veinlets that cut across the gangue minerals. 


Quartz is by far the most abundant gangue mineral, and much of 
the ore consists almost exclusively of magnetite and quartz. The 
quartz is mostly clear and has a slight bluish tint. It occurs as 
Single irregular grains or as lenticular or veinlike bands with a fine 
granular texture. Many small grains of magnetite are included in the 
quartz, and in places the quartz is cut by thin bands of pure magnetite. 


Feldspars, mainly white or light-green plagioclase but also some 
orthoclase, are common constituents of the gangue and occur in the 
form of irregular grains or. as slightly elongated lenses or “augen.” 

i 
5B 


66 


Pyrite is abundant in places and shows a tendency to form rims 
about grains of quartz or to occur as thin streaks along joint planes, 
although irregular grains of it are disseminated throughout much 
of the ore. Hornblende is an abundant constituent in the ore in 
certain places but is practically absent in most of the ore. Much 
of the hornblende has altered to chlorite. Coarse hornblende is com- 
mon in the wall rock that adjoins the ore. Buiotite occurs in about 
the same manner as hornblende but is somewhat more abundant. 
Bands in which biotite is the most abundant constituent are com- 
mon in highly laminated ores, especially in contact with the streaks 
of fairly pure quartz. Ilmenite can seldom be detected, but some of 
the analyses show a rather high percentage of titanium. 

Analyses of the magnetite ores of the quadrangle show approxt- 
mately the following ranges and averages: 


Analyses of magnetite ores of Allentown quadrangle. 


Range Average 
HG | Poe OOS REE, See cre see en ee 29.00 to 55.00 42.00 
SiQep gsi tS" 2.0522 eee ee ee * 15.010 to 44.00 35.00) 
f ral Paras MANE BM tepeh arpte SNe Py th. eb dee | .03 to 1.528 «054 
eR aes eee AE RE RN ee eb i Boe Chine .007 to 1.05 07 
Mny 2.20.05 2 See ee ee ee ee ees .00 to 03 01 


The wall rocks in the vicinity of the, Vera Cruz ore masses con- 
tain considerable magnetite and perhaps average 18 per cent iron. 
Edison had hoped to be able to concentrate profitably both the 
magnetite of the rocks as well as that of the veins and calculated 
that in the area mapped magnetically there was about 20,000,000 
tons of ore above water level. However, the mill which was erected 
at Edison, N. J., to concentrate similar ores magnetically did not 
prove a success, and the whole project was abandoned. 


Origin. 

So much has been written in regard to the origin of the magnetite 
ores of the pre-Cambrian rocks of the eastern United States that it 
would be impracticable here to review all the theories that have been 
proposed. This work has been ably done by W. 8S. Bayley.** 


The light and probably the dark gneisses associated with the 
magnetite ore bodies are igneous in character, although in the main 
the dark gneisses of the quadrangle are believed to be of sedimentary 
origin. These rocks in the vicinity of the magnetite veins contain 
much magnetite in the form of disseminated interlocking grains that 
are certainly of primary origin and were formed when the igneous 
magma solidified from fusion. Subsequently aqueo-igneous products 
of differentiation from the subterranean magma, consisting of greater 


—___ 


43Bayley, W. S., Tron mines and mining in New Jersey: New Jersey Geol. Survey, vol. 
7, pp. 147-193, 1910. 


67 


amounts of quartz and magnetite and lesser amounts of feldspar 
and ferromagnesian materials, were intruded within the cooled rocks. 
These intrusions came up in the form of sheets, which broke through 
along roughly parallel lines, owing to stresses or actual breaks in 
the rocks that were brought about by some force which acted in one 
direction and weakened the rocks in parallel lines sufficiently for 
the later magmas to come toward the surface. The materials brought 
up were probably in solution in gases or highly heated waters, which 
penetrated the country rock in many places and injected into them 
additional magnetite to that which they already contained. Many 
of the country rocks are injection gneisses, as shown by the relation 
of some of the magnetite to the other minerals, yet it is doubtful 
whether all the magnetite of the associated gneisses originated in 
this manner. 

The underlying magma continued to differentiate, and during some 
later period, or perhaps during several periods, earth stresses forced 
some of the magmas to the surface As the places of earlier intru- 
sions were the weakest places in the overlying rocks the later solu- 
tions came up through the earlier intruded rocks. In the process 
of differentiation the solutions that came to the surface at times 
contained almost pure quartz and at other times practically nothing 
but magnetite, a difference which accounts for the pure veinlike 
masses of these minerals that are commonly seen. In places a vein 
of magnetite cuts the quartz, but elsewhere the relation is reversed. 
Some pyrite was also present in some of the aqueo-igneous solutions, 
and its relation to the other minerals shows that it was formed after 
most of the minerals of the ore body had solidified. 

As the later intrusions took place the earlier intrusions were en- 
riched iby magnetite and quartz, which replaced some of the silicate 
minerals, such as feldspar, hornblende, and biotite, of the earlier 
intrusions. There was a tendency for the hornblende and biotite to 
recrystallize in larger grains adjoining the passageways for the solu- 
tions as is shown by many specimens collected in the region. 

If this explanation of the origin of the magnetite ores of this 
quadrangle is correct, and it seems to explain the phenomena observed 
better than any other known hypothesis, the ore bodies owe their 
origin entirely to ascending aqueo-igneous solutions; hence the ores 
should continue to great depth without any marked change in either 
quality or quantity. Thev surely extend much deeper than it would 
ever be profitable to mine them. 


Methods of Mining. 


In mining the limonite ores open-cut methods predominated, but 
in mining the magnetite ores very little open-cut work was practic- 
alle The dipping beds of ore a few feet in thickness which were in- 
closed in hard rocks necessitated shaft mining almost from the start, 


68 


although some open-cut mining has been done in the region to the 
depth of 20 to 25 feet. Most of the shafts were sunk in the veins 
and were inclined to the south at angles of 45° to 55°. From the 
shaft levels were driven to either side and the ore was removed by 
underhand stoping. In one place a tunnel was driven into the hill 
to cut the vein of ore 135 feet below the surface. Although the 
tunnel was serviceable for drainage, it was never used for removing 
ore, Which was hoisted through a vertical shaft to the top of the 
mountain. 

The wall rock in most mines was very firm, so that little timbering 
was required, even for the shafts. As the depth increased the water 
became abundant but was not so serious an obstacle ag in the limonite 
mines, because of the location of the magnetite mines higher up on 
the mountain slopes and the greater solidity of the inclosing rocks. 
However, in mining limonite some water was required for wash- 
ing the ores, whereas in the magnetite mines the water was purely 
a disadvantage. 

Some of the ore when brought to the surface was cobbed to remove 
the leanest materials but received no further treatment. It is said ~ 
that the cost of mining the ore ranged from $3.50 to $4.00 a ton 
and it was sold for $5 to $6 a ton. Almost all of it was hauled from 
the mines to nearby furnaces or to the railroad to be shipped. 

Most of the mines were operated by the owners, who sold the ore 
wherever they could. A few mines, however, were controlled by iron 
companies that owned furnaces and were leased on a royalty with 
the arrangement that all the ore should be brought to their furnaces 
and paid for ‘at prevailing market prices. The royalty ranged from 
20 to 50 cents a ton. 


Economic Considerations. 


For many years the magnetite mines of the quadrangle have been 
worked only in a small way if at all, and some of the last ore mined 
long remained unsold. So far as known, the ore was not exhausted 
in any of the mines but instead in some of them was more promising 
when operations ceased than it had been previously. The present con- 
dition, in which only one mine has been in operation during the last 
decade, seems to be due in part to the small and uncertain output, 
which was neither large enough nor sufficiently regular to appeal to 
iron manufacturers, and in part to the quality of the ore in com- 
parison with other ores that are shipped into the district from other 
iron districts. The large amount of silica in the ore is especially 
objectionable, and the iron content is considerably lower than that 
of the Lake Superior, northern New Jersey, or Adirondack ores. 

The only hope for the future of magnetite mining in this area 
seems to be in a change of plans by which the production would be — 


69 


largely increased and concentrating mills erected. The ore could 
be concentrated magnetically with ease, and the product obtained 
should find a ready market at the furnaces still in operation in the 
immediate vicinity. It is not at all improbable that the tailings, 
which would consist almost entirely of angular quartz particles, 
might be sold for concrete and road metal for a price sufficient to 
pay part of the cost of concentration. Unless the ore is concentrated 
it is questionable whether any of the magnetite mines of the quad- 
rangle can be profitably operated under existing conditions. 


Magnetite Mines.** 


134, 135, and 136. These mines are southeast and east of South Bethlehem and 
seem never to have been worked actively. They were probably little more than pros- 
pects. 


137. In a trial pit 1 mile south of Lower Saucon Union Church 2 feet of ore 
was discovered but was not of sufficient importance to mine. 


138, ‘The Emaus Iron Ore Co’s. mine, formerly known as the Hildegast or Shelly 
mine, is on the First or Front vein at the extreme west edge of the quadrangle 
north of Vera Cruz. It seems to have been first opened 35 to 40 years ago for the 
Coleraine Iron Co. of Redington. It has been worked at several different times. 
It was acquired by the present company in 1914 and in 1915 they were engaged in 
cleaning and retimbering it preparatory to working. All work soon ceased. This 
mine is the only iron mine of any kind recently operated in the quadrangle. 

The shaft, which is sunk along the vein, is said to be 100 feet deep and the ore 
body from 38 to 5 feet thick. The ore, which is of fair quality, contains much clear 
quartz and small amounts of pyrite, hornblende, and feldspar. 


139. The Moyer mine, which is on the Third Vein, was first worked about 30 
years ago. It was last worked by James Hosking about 1897. The sheft is 60 feet 
deep; drifts have been run about 100 feet both east and west of the shaft. The 
ore averages about 45 per cent iron. It is estimated that the mine has produced 
about 10,000 tons. The ore and vein ajre similar to that found in the Wieand mine. 


140. The Wieand or Mann mine was worked before the Civil War and is the 
oldest magnetite mine in the region. It has two shafts about 75 feet in depth. 
The vein is 5 to 6 feet thick. The ore is finegrained and contains ccnsiderable 
feldspar and mica as well as quartz. Drifts were run about 150 feet both east and 
west of No. 1 shaft. It has been estimated that the mine has produced approxi- 
mately 100,000 tons of ore. Much of the ore was shipped to the Crane Iron Co. 


141, Fink mine has a shaft that is said to be 80 feet deep. It is on the Third 
vein, and the ore is similar to that of the Moyer and Wieand mines. The vein ranges 
from 4 to 8 feet in width. The mine produced 5,000 to 6,000 tons of ore, which was 
shipped to the Bethlehem Iron Co. 


142. The Wickert mine, which was earlier known as the Bader mine, was opened 
about 1880. It was last worked by James Hosking in 1910. There are four shafts 
on the property, two of which are about 200 feet in depth, and several open cuts. 
Drifts have been run along the vein for a distance of several hundred feet. The vein 
which is known as the Second or Back vein, is 5 to 14 feet wide and shows a decided . 
tendency to widen and pinch both along the dip and strike; in places ore was ab- 
sent. The vein dips about 55° S. and strikes almost due east. Some faulting has 
offset the vein, making it appear as two veins. In the upper levels the ore averages 
about 45 per cent iron, but in the deeper levels it contains from 50 to 55 per cent 
iron. (‘A sample which had been exposed on the dump for about 20 years was 
analysed in the laboratory of the Bethlehem Steel Co. with the following results: 


Analysis of magnetite ore from Wickert mine. 


LEH SINE” ASE cS a ag es ie A nf A Ne 3 Baie 37.51 
1M EES <9: es dD ogee i ELA OR MR Ge SPARES a .00 
See ie, ca bel Ay el ee et Aaa gy 023 
Pema yee eee SS NS ee ee eee eee Se 012 
UG S25 aS le ee. ee tetera Spice Stes 33.07 





44The numbers given to the mines in this description refer to the numbers on the 
map (Pl. Il, in pocket). 


70 


& 


The ore is mainly a mixture of magnetite and clear quartz, which in places occur 
in the form of thin alternating bands, but in other oe the two minerals are in 
intimate association in a granular mass. 

The method of working was to run drifts along the vein and then stope down 
on the ore. ‘(At one time two shafts were employed in the mine, and for about four 
years there were about 60 men in the employ of the company. The mine has pro- 
duced from 60,000 to 65,000 tons of ore. Several hundred tons of ore are now on 
the dump awaiting a market. 


143. At the Swartz mine several open cuts and shafts were opened about 1884. 
At the depth of 25 feet in one of the shafts which is 55 feet in depth a drift was 
driven 6 feet to the east and another 15 feet to the west. The mine is located on 
the First or Front vein, which is here about 5 feet thick and has a seam or “horse” 
of rock in the center from 6 to 12 inches thick. The ore is finegrained and contains 
considerable pyrite. The mine is Said to have produced about 3,000 tons of ore, 
which was shipped to the Bethlehem Iron Co. Two samples from the dumps that 
were analyzed by the Bethlehem Steel Co. in 1906 gave the following results: 


Analyses of magnetite ore from Swarts mine. 


} 2 
BG? 12 Moors 0) Ce -oRed Wit APOE L RE reese ee 35.00 , 43.00 
Miv Ae ee ee Be ee oe Pe, 00 -O1 
Pit, 2 hen > a oe ee eee Mg eee ee .056 . 066 
SS jee oes ae, Ae et Ree ek ee eae 1.048 .191 
SIQp ie Bie Wee oe oe ee ee oe 38.55 32.00 


An old shaft was sunk on the Third vein just east of a new road that is not shown 
on the map. It is now completely filled and is reported to have been 30 feet in depth. 
The ore found was leaner than that in neighboring mines. 


145. A shaft on the Second or Back vein is on the west side of a road that is 
not shown on the map. The material on the dump contains pieces of a very basic 
gneiss, which seems to have been associated with the ore. 


146. The Engelman mine comprises a shaft, which is commonly supposed to be 
on the Second or Back vein, a short distance west of Jobst’s mine. The magnetic 
survey chart (PI. III) shows, however, that it is on a slightly different vein 
but one which unites with the vein worked in Jobst’s shaft and tunnel. Little 
is known of this mine. 


147. At the Jobst mine in 1875 a tunnel was run into the hill from the road by 
the Hellertown Iron Company. At a distance of 150 feet from the entrance a 4-foot 
body of ore known as the Front or First vein was penetrated and at 411 feet the 
Second or Back vein was found. The Front vein, which contains solid ore of 
good quality, was never mined. The Back vein was extensively mined. From the 
end of the tunnel a shaft was driven apa? to the surface, a distance of 135 feet. 
This shaft was also continued downward 75 feet below the ‘tunnel level. The Back 
vein at the tunnel level was 6 feet thick, but at the bottom of the shaft it was 8 
to 15 feet thick and contained solid ore of good quality. Above the tunnel level 
the vein was only about 2 feet thick, too thin to be worked with profit. The vein 
dips to the south at an angle that averages 45°. The ore contains considerable horn- 
biende and pyrite. 

Tobias Castelane, who investigated the Vera Cruz mines for Thcmas A. Edison, 
sampled the rock in the tunnel between the two veins and found that it contained 
from 15 to 25 per cent iron. 

The ore was stoped along the Back vein below the tunnel level to a distance of 
300 feet along the strike and hoisted to the surface through the shaft. 

About 40,000 tons of ore was produced from this mine, most of which was shipped 
to the furnaces at Hellertown, Hmaus, and Edgehill. 


148. No information is available regarding the Bachman mine. 


149. Nothing is known concerning this mine, which was probably only a pros- 
pect hole. 


150. The Wichelberger & Frey mine is 1 mile west of Spring Valley on the farm 
of W. J. Sleifer. Magnetite ore was mined at this place for several years prior to 
1883. The are two shafts, one of which is reported to be 100 feet in depth. About 
4,000 tons of ore was mined, most of which was hauled to the Bingen furnace. No 
data could be obtained in regard to the size and character of the vein. The ore 
contains much quartz and considerable pyrite, feldspar, and hornblende. ‘The 
following analyses of ore from the dumps were made by the Bethlehem Steel Co. 
in 1900 and 1905: 


71 


Analyses of magnetite ore from Hichelberger & Frey mine. 


1 2 
TIS edge egal i rea Spee rapa ee 54.81 35.47 
DUT pene rs Re eee oe he) et Sere AS 02 025 
TE tie eee ees LL Ses oe . 04. 029 
ape etek) | ee ts | ee ee ee ee 046 125 
SAO eae eS BS Ss et a Se he 21.28 43.63 
Sa) deletes ie PRAY Neo ER ee ELE Soprano tc, be seat 002 


There is a report that the ore contained considerable titanium but this has not 
been verified. 


151. A short distance west of Spring Valley a tunnel was driven into the hill in 
search of magnetite ore. It is reported that some ore was found but not enough 
for profitable mining. 


152. At this prospect hole, three-quarters mile south of Springtown, little ore 
seems to have been found. . 


ZINC ORE. 


The most productive zinc mines of Pennsylvania are at Friedens- 
ville, in the Saucon Valley, about 3 miles south of Bethlehem. 
Although not now in operation, they have contributed largely to 
the mineral wealth of the region, and the zinc ranks among the 
most valuable mineral resources of the Allentown quadrangle. These 
mines have yielded large quantities of high-grade zinc ore in the past 
and may in the future become an important factor in the zine pro- 
duction of the country. 


Historical Sketch. 


Karly in the last century an unusual mineral was noted in the 
surface soil of the farm of Jacob Ueberroth, about half a mile north 
of Friedensville, but as iron was the only economic mineral known 
to occur in the region little attention was given to this material. 
However, about 1830 a wagonload of the unknown substance was 
hauled to the Mary Ann iron furnace in Berks County to be tested. 
Naturally the experiment yielded no metal, as all the zine was 
volatilized and escaped. 

In 1845 Andrew Wittman, after studying Overman’s “Metallurgy,” 
conducted some experiments with the ore by means of a small cruc- 
ible in a stove and obtained a few globules of metal but did not know 
that it was zinc. 

Also in 1845 Theodore William Roepper, a local mineralogist, who 
later became the first professor of mineralogy and geology in Lehigh » 
University, while taking an afternoon’s stroll in the vicinity of 
Friedensville picked up a few pieces of the hitherto unknown mineral 
and determined it to be calamine. He conducted experiments in 
Lehman’s foundry, in South Bethlehem, and succeeded in making 
brass from the calamine and native copper. He did not succeed, how- 
ever, in making spelter. 

Roepper induced Robert Earp, a Philadelphia importer, to examine 
the deposit and to obtain a lease on the Ueberroth farm. After this 


72 


lease was obtained, 9 tons of ore was mined and shipped to England 
in one of Earp’s vessels in January, 1846. The temperature of the 
English furnaces, which was gaged for roasted ore, was not high 
enough for the calamine, so the report came back that the ore 
could not be used. 

Experimentation was carried on in this country and finally a 
process was developed for the manufacture of zinc oxide from the 
calamine ore. In the spring of 1853 Samuel Wetherell began the 
construction of furnaces for the production of zine oxide according 
to a process of his own invention. The furnaces were erected in ° 
what is now the south portion of Bethlehem (then known as Augusta) 
and had a capacity of 2,000 tons a year. They were completed on Oc- 
tober 12, 1855, and on the following day zinc oxide was produced from 
the Friedensville ore by the “furnace” and “tower” process of Weth- 
erell and collected by the “bag” process of Richard Jones. The 
operation was described by M. S. Henry*’ as follows: 

The entire process of manufacture practised here consists, in effect, of the 
following operations, viz. : 

The ore, pulverized and mixed with coal, is strongly heated in furnaces which are 
fully supplied with air; the metallic zinc which is thereby extracted in the form of 
vapor, is instantly oxidized, and the oxide of zine thus formed, being an exceedingly 
light powder, is carried immediately from the furnaces by a strong artificial draft, 
together with large quantities of gases, and such ashes, ete., as are light enough to 
float in a current of air. These ashes are taken first and separated and deposited 
with the coarse particles of zine oxide in rooms prcvided for the purpose; a part 
of the pure zine oxide is afterward caught in chambers, and finally the gases are 
all strained out by an immense apparatus of Hannel and muslin begs, to the inner 
surface of which the last and finest of the zine oxide adheres, whence It is re- 
moved at proper intervals. 

The zine oxide which is thus collected in the chambers and bags, is in the form 
of «a very white, fine, and flocculent powder, which is compressed by proper sppara- 
tus into much smaller bulk, and is then carefully packed into strong, tight, paper- 
lined casks. - . 

The manufacture of zinc oxide from the Friedensville ore was the 
second successful attempt in the United States. In 1852 the New 
Jersey Zinc Co. in its works at Newark, N. J., had begun the manu- 
facture of zinc oxide on a commercial scale. Its output for 1852 was 
1,083 tons, and for 1853 it was 1,805 tons; altogether only about 2,500 
tons had been produced in the country before the beginning of opera- 
tions at Freidensville. 

On May 2, 1855, by an act of the legislature, the Pennsylvania & 
Lehigh Zine Co., composed of the same men who had already begun 
operations, was incorporated with a capitalization of $1,000,000 “for 
the purpose of mining zinc ore in the counties of Lehigh and North- 
ampton, of manufacturing zine paint, metallic zinc, and other arti- 
cles from said ore, and of vending the same.” 

Attempts to produce spelter were early made, and between 1854 and 
1859 Wetherell carried on a series of experiments for that purpose. 


He succeeded in producing spelter, but the process he developed was 





45}Zistory of the Lehigh Valley, pp. 286-257, 1860. 


73 


not economical and the experiments were discontinued. His method 
was to heat the ore in the open furnace and then draw the fumes 
of zine oxide through incandescent anthracite to reduce the oxide. 
He made a few tons of spelter in this way. 

In 1857 Matthiessen and Hegeler, two young men fresh from the 
School of Mines of Freiberg, Saxony, obtained permission to experi- 
ment in the plant which the company had erected at Freidensville. 
They were successful in making spelter but were not able to make 
satisfactory terms with the company for the erection of a plant of 
practical size 

In 1859 Joseph Wharton contracted with the company for the 
erection of spelter works of the Belgian type, with retorts made of 
materials that had been found to be sufficiently refractory, and 
brought to this country Louis de Gée, of Ougré province of Liége, 
Belgium, to superintend their construction. The Belgian furnaces 
were successful, and in July, 1859, the first spelter was produced. 

In 1838, at the United States Arsenal in Washington, the first brass 
was produced in this country. The zinc was made from a mixture of 
zincite ore of Franklin Furnace and Sterling Hill. Zinc ore from the 
Perkiomen lead and zinc mine in Montgomery County, N. J., was 
used in the manufacture of the standard weights and measures 
ordered by Congress. The method was the one employed for hun- 
dreds of years in producing brass from copper and zine ore. The 
process, however, was so expensive that it was many years before 
any attempts were made to utilize the zinc ores of this country. 

Up to this time spelter had been made commercially at only one 
place in the country. The first regular manufacture of spelter was 
started in 1850, and the New Jersey ores were used. The industry 
did not meet with much success for several years, because the oxide 
of iron in the franklinite of the ore formed a fusible silicate with 
the siliceous matter of the clay. . Thus the production of spelter from 
the Friedensville ores was started only a few years later than that 
from the New Jersey ores, and the furnaces erected at South Beth- 
lehem were the first entirely successful zine furnaces in the United 
States. 

On February 16, 1860, by an act of the legislature the name of the 
company was changed to the Lehigh Zinc Co., the name by which it 
is best known. There was much litigation concerning the ownership 
of the property until 1861, when the company purchased the land out- 
right. 

In 1864 and 1865 the company erected a mill for rolling sheet 
zine with a capacity of 3,000 casks or 1,680 tons a year. The mill 
started operations in April, 1865. 

From 1853 to 1876 the Lehigh Zine Co. continued to operate its 
Friedensville mines without interruption. From the beginning of 


74. 


operations until 1875 this company was the only operating company 
in the district. However, it never owned the property of the Jacob 
Correll estate, which lies just west of the Friedensville Church. This 
property was originally leased by the Passaic Zine Co., by which 
it was sublet to the Lehigh Zinc Co. on high royalties. In 1875 
on the expiration of this lease, the Bergen Point Zine Co. of Bergen 
Point, N. J., obtained the lease and began operations. For about a 
year, therefore, until the discontinuance of the Lehigh Zine Co’s. 
operations, there were two companies at work in the region. The 
Bergen Point Zine Co. continued to operate until 1881. 

In 1881 Franklin Osgood, who already owned an interest in the 
Correll mine, purchased the Lehigh Zinc Co’s. property, consisting 
of the Ueberroth, Old Hartman, and New Hartman mines, and organ- 
ized the Friedensville Zinc Co. New smelters were erected at the 
Ueberroth mine and oxide works at the Hartman mine. However, 
from 1881 to 1885 the ores mined were mainly shipped to Bergen 
Point, N. J., but after March, 1886, they smelted at the works. 

Mining operations at the Correll and New Hartman mines con- 
tinued with few interruptions to November, 1893, since when all the 
mines have been idle. The Ueberroth mine was worked for a while 
in 1883 and again for a short time in 1886. The big pump of this 
mine was run from September 29, 1890, to September 15, 1891, but 
merely for the purpose of lowering the water in the New Hartman 
mine. 

At present the New Jersey Zinc Co. owns all the mines that have 
thus far been opened, except the Correll mine, together with consider- 
able land adjoining. Prospect drilling by this company was carried 
on in 1914 and 1915 in the vicinity of the Old Hartman mine and later 
water was pumped from the New Hartman mine for several months 
and the shaft repaired but no ore taken out. Conditions brought 
about by the war interfered with the operations and all work ceased. 
In 1925 drilling was resumed and is still in progress. 

It is estimated that 50,000 tons of spelter and 90,000 tons of zine 
oxide, valued at approximately $20,000,000, have been produced from 
the Friedensville zine ores. Only incomplete statistics of actual 
production have been obtained from occasional items in the mining 
journals. 

From October, 1853, to September, 1857, the production of zine was 
4,725 tons. 

In 1865 the production amounted to approximately 3,000 tons of 
zinc oxide, 3,600 tons of metallic zine, and 3,000 casks or 1,680 tons 
of sheet zinc, which represented about one-half the total production 
of the country. The president of the Lehigh Zine Co. stated in 
1872 that in certain years 17,000 tons of ore was mined and that 
up to that time about 300,000 tons had been taken from the ground. 


75 


In 1875 the Bergen Point Zine Co. produced 500 tons of spelter and 
1,000 tons of zine oxide from the ores of the Correll mine and the 
Lehigh Zine Co. 1,505 tons of spelter from ores obtained from the 
Ueberroth and Hartman mines. 

From 1876 to 1881 the Correll mine is said to have produced about 
50 tons of ore daily. | 

The census statistics for 1880 give a production of 20,459 tons of 
ore for the Friedensville mines. 


Distribution. 


The area in which ore has been found in paying quantities is exceed- 
ingly small, comprising localities in the immediate vicinity of Fried- 
ensville and about half a mile to the northwest. Considerable pros- 
pecting has been done’over a much larger area throughout the Saucon 
Valley and elsewhere in the Allentown quadrangle but without re- 
sults. Reports of zinc ore from other places have been circulated 
at many times but have never been confirmed. Traces of zine have 
been found in some limestone drill cores from a locality about 1 
miles west of Friedensville, in the limonite iron ores about 14 miles 
west of Friedensville, and in the Hellertown Cave. 


Character and Composition. 


The zinc ores first worked in the Friedensville region consisted al- 
most entirely of calamine, together with some _ smithsonite, 
mixed with the residual clay formed by the decomposition 
of the country rock, which is Ordovician limestone of Beekmantown 
age. In depth the calamine and smithsonite decreased rapidly, and 
zine blende (sphalerite), intimately associated with pyrite and mar- 
casite, became more common. 

The calamine occurs in irregular segregations in the clay, in fis- 
sures in the limestone, or in the porous, partly silicified limestone, 
commonly in botryoidal or stalactitic forms. Sheets or plates from 2 
to 3 feet square and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch thick are 
said to have been frequently found in the crevices in the limestone. 
These masses of calamine were coated with small crystals of the same 
mineral. The crystals of calamine are small but clear and lustrous. 
In color the calamine ranges from colorless to yellowish and greenish- 
blue. 

The smithsonite was usually inconspicuous and occurred as white 
scales or granular masses coating the calamine or blend, or on the 
walls of the limestone fissures, or as yellowish-brown porous masses. 
Most of the smithsonite mined was amorphous and occurred in botry- 
oidal, stalactitic, or laminated masses. <A few plates of small clear 
crystals with vitreous to pearly luster were found. White, gray, or 
colorless crystals are most common, but greenish-white to greenish- 


76 


yellow crystals occur. The yellow crystals contain greenockite. 
Druses of smithsonite coating crystals of aragonite and quartz have 
been found, showing the later deposition of the smithsonite. 

The smithsonite and calamine were formed by oxidation of the 
sphalerite, but the depths at which the sulphide was encountered in 
the different mines were not uniform. In the Ueberroth mine, for 
example, calamine was found at a depth of 200 feet from the surface; 
a mass weighing 8,500 pounds from that depth was exhibited at 
the Centennial Exposition. On the other hand, some sulphide ore 
was found only a few feet from the surface in the Old Hartman 
and Correll mines. This difference was undoubtedly due to the 
greater freedom of downward circulation of meteoric water con- 
taining oxygen along certain strata which changed the sphalerite to 
calamine or smithsonite. The vertical and greatly shattered beds 
of the Ueberroth mine readily permitted the surface waters to pass 
between the bedding planes to greater depths than in the Correll 
mine and the Old Hartman mine, where the beds of limestone have 
a less degee of inclination, and are less broken. 

The Friedensville sphalerite or zine blende is of a peculiar char- 
acter, essentially unlike any other found in the country. In the 
main it occurs as compact gray to bluish-black or black masses 
having a prominent conchoidal fracture and rarely shows any traces 
of crystallization. It is translucent in thin pieces and produces a 
clear ring when struck. Much of it resembles in appearance dark- 
blue limestone, from which it is readily distinguished, however, by 
its greater specific gravity. Sphalerite of a light resinous color and 
well crystallized occurs in small veins in the limestone, and less 
commonly small honey-yellow crystals are found on the sides of 
cavities in the limestone. As sent to the works the sulphide ore 
contained from 35 to 40 per cent of zine. Its nonecrystalline struc- 
ture and the presence of pyrite render its concentration difficult. 

Pyrite is almost universally found in association with the sphaler- 
ite in massive form. In many places the masses of sulphide consist 
mainly of pyrite. The large amount of pyrite has been one of the 
most objectionable features of the sulphide ore. Within the ore 
crystals of pyrite are extremely rare, but they can be seen in many 
places in the limestone as small cubes. The ease with which some 
of the massive iron sulphide decomposes suggests the presence of 
considerable marcasite, although this has not been definitely de- 
termined. Melanterite (hydrous ferrous sulphate) is frequently seen 
as an efflorescence on the masses of pyrite and marcasite ore. 

Greenockite (cadmium sulphide), which occurs in many places in 
association with sphalerite, is found in the Friedensville mines 
but in the amorphous form only. It occurs in the form of yellow, 
greenish-yellow, or orange-colored earthy incrustations on sphalerite, 


77 


calamine, or limestone. Roepper also found it in clayey material 
resulting from the decomposition of pyritiferous limestone. A speci- 
men of this material which he analyzed contained 5 per cent of 
cadmium. 

Goslarite, the hydrous sulphate of zine, also known as white vitriol, 
has been obtained in the Hriedensville mines in small quantities. 
It is formed by the oxidation of sphalerite and occurs as incrusta- 
tions of the sphalerite and as fine needle-shaped white crystals. 

A few specimens of hydrozincite, in the form of white mammillary 
particles or earthy white masses, were found while the mines were 
in operation. Halloysite, which resembles cloudy amber and has 
a marked conchoidal fracture, occurs as a rare mineral. The speci- 
mens are very brittle and have a low specific gravity. 

The~mines furnished considerable quantities of a claylike ma- 
terial, in some places known as “tallow clays” but in this region 
described by Roepper as a new mineral to which he gave the name 
“sauconite.” Genth*® described it as follows: 2 


Apparently amorphous, fracture conchoidal; streak brown and shining; translu- 
cent on thin edges; translucency increased by wetting. When thrown into water 
emits a crackling sound. 

Hardness—=1.5; Specific gravity—2.66-2.70. 

The tollowing varieties have been analyzed by Roepper: (1) pale yellowish-white ; 
(2) ocher-yellow (after having been dried during one hour at 105°C.). (38) Blake*' 
analyzed a pale-yellow variety. ' 























1 2 3 
NCH GIDL, A oe I ES ee oe a ne eae 48.94 46.45 41.36 
Ne ea de ea a ge | 10.66 7.41 8.04 
Tels cates (a (ce) SNS a ee ee eee eee are 8.85 14.28 9.55 
LOND Cy (OSCARS ae SRS eS pa pee ee eS 26.95 22.86 32.24) 
ie Ne nea ee a Se J Bao eee Be 0.97 1.02 
sn St ee Oe meats Leer aN eee a oe en een nes ad EP, es ee et, Se eee 
OED re eres ee ee se a GN et oe ee eee eee ners ee ee oe trace 
Oe ee a ee ee ee ee a --| 7.06 6.73 7.76 
| 99.88 98.69 99.97 
| 





Like all similar minerals, the composition is somewhat variable, owing in part 
to accidental admixtures and a replaceinent of one isomorphous substance by another. 

Allowing in the first analysis for a mechanical admixture of 3.45 per cent of 
silicie acid (quartz), the oxygen ratios of zinc oxide and lime (RO) to alumina, 
und ferrie oxide (R2O:) to silicic acid and water are 1:1:4:1, corresponding with 
the formula 3(RO, SiO?) +R20:, 38i02:+3H:0. 

At one time the Lehigh Zine Co. obtained a considerable quantity 
of the “sauconite” in fairly pure form and shipped it to the oxide 
furnaces. Although the material proved to be satisfactory for the 
manufacture of zinc oxide no further shipments were made, as it 
usually was taken from the mine together with the other ore and was 


washed away in the log washers with the ordinary clay. 





*6Genth, F. <A., Preliminary report on the mineralogy of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania 
Second Geol. Survey, Rept. B, pp. 120-121, 1875. \ 


47Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 409, 1868. 


78 


Masses of white kaolin are common, although most of the clay 
contains impurities of various kinds. Quartz is especially abundant 
and occurs as a result of the metasomatic replacement of portions of 
the limestone which produces a compact quartzite, as thin veins that 
cut the limestones in all directions, and as small crystals that line 
cavities in the somewhat porous altered limestones. An interesting 
variety of fibrous quartz that has been found in the mines has been 
called “petrified horsehair.” Secondary calcite occurs in many 
places as cavity fillings and as small crystals. The mines yielded 
many beautiful specimens of aragonite, which occurred as radiating 
acicular crystals as much as 1 inch in length in cavities in the lime- 
stone. Most of the aragonite contains some zinc. One specimen 
analyzed by Roepper yielded the following results: 


Partial analysis of specimen of aragonite from Friedensville, Pa. 


On GO8 4s eae. Bs oe ara Becca S sie Beene ee oe 94.20 
LC Ot ES ee te eee is Le cae 4.78 
Insoluble; material’ <2... 28. Hoan eee es 

99.46 


As the limestone that contains the ore is highly dolomitic, second- 
ary dolomite would be expected to occur. Cavities in the limestone 
lined with characteristic crystals of dolomite are common. Ocher- 
ous limonite derived from the original pyrite or marcasite is abund- 
ant, and here and there masses of turgite are found. One specimen 
of ocherous limonite in the Roepper collection in Lehigh University 
shows beautiful laminated mammillary structure. Pseudomorphs 
of limonite after pyrite are common in the limestones in close con- 
tact with the ore bodies. Impure masses of wad are occasionally 
seen in association with the lmonite. 

Asbestos of the variety called “mountain leather” occurs in places 
in the crevices in the limestones. ALophane in white botryoidal and 
stalactitic masses is found in small amounts. The region has also 
vielded a small amount of lanthanite in the form of aggregations of 
small rectangular crystals that are a delicate pink and have a pearly 
luster. Although the mineral was reported to have been “thrown 
out from a few feet below the surface by the miners when sinking an 
exploring shaft near one of the veins of calamine,” it is probable that 
the specimen originally came from the gneiss a short distance to the 
north. An analysis by W. P. Blake*® gave the following results: 


Partial analysis of specimen of lanthanite from Friedensville, Pa. 
! 


G2 oe AE eee ETE ere hoc tery. A 24.09 
Car bonice ACW’. 5 s::sth ware Reet nee ee eS 22.58 
Oxide of lanthanum and didymium ...... 54.90 

101.57 


Cerium was not detected but was probably present. 


CS 


48Am, Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 16, pp. 228-230, 1853. 


The ores of the Friedensville region are remarkably free from ob- 
jectionable minerals, such as those which contain lead, arsenic, and 
antimony, and for that reason the spelter and oxide made from them 
always commanded the highest prices. The following notes *° are 
interesting in this connection: 

Lehigh zine, or spelter, made from the ores of the Friedensville mines, near 
Bethlehem, Pa., has a world-wide reputation as the purest zine in the world, and as 
specially adapted for use in cartridge making; in fact, it is the only zine yet known 
that will make a cartridge that will never expand and stick in the gun in firing. The 
Russian and Turkish governments long ago recognized this fact, and during their 
last war had expert commissions in this country testing the metal made into cart- 
ridges for them, and they even brought over ores from other countries to treat 
here, in order to determine whether the high quality was due to any special treat- 
ment here. It was fully demonstrated that Lehigh zine is better than any other be- 
cause the ore is purer, containing neither arsenic nor lead, and that, with Lake 
copper, it formed the best cartridge metal yet made. Other European nations have 
recognized the same fact by buying here; but the English government, with its ac- 
customed ‘‘deliberateness,”’ could not accept this fact without expensive experience of 
its own. Fortunately this experience came in a little instead of a great war. In the 
Sudan campaign it is said to appear beyond doubt, from evidence collected by 
Lord Charles Beresford, that in one action with the Arabs 25 per cent of the 
rifles were at one time useless by the jamming of the Boxer eartridge, and as this 
no doubt greajtly increased the losses of the British, and lacked but little of annihi- 
lating the band of heroes who fought their way forward in their vain effort to 
rescue General Gordon, it has at last attracted the attention of the government, 
and a contract has been made for a large amount of Bergenpoint Company’s Le- 
high spelter, with which new cartridges are now being made. The price paid is 
said to be equivalent of 8} cents a pound. 

All the famous mines producing this exceptional ore are now owned by the 
Bergen Point Zine Co., which has now made contracts to send 2,000 tons of this 
ore to Belgium for treatment. 


Occurrence. 

The zine ores occur in a region of sharply folded and faulted Ordo- 
vician limestones of Beekmantown age. The surface covering of 
residual clay and glacial debris prevents an accurate determination 
of the structure. The rocks have been greatly shattered by the 
earth movements to which they have been subjected and have thus 
been opened to the active circulation of water. 

No extensive faults can be determined from the outcrops, none 
have been described in the literature, and the inaccessibility of the 
underground workings at present prevents additional observations. 
Slickensided surfaces can be seen in many places in the Ueberroth 
and Old Hartman workings, and zones of limestone breccia that seem 
to be in part if not entirely fault breccia indicate displacements. At 
the Old Hartman mine the brecciated limestone is especially well 
shown in the outcropping ledges. Such evidences of movement as 
can be obtained indicate that the faulting was confined principally 
to displacements along the bedding planes. 

That the rocks of the region have yielded to the intense strain to 
which they have been subjected is shown by the numerous narrow 
quartz veins that penetrate the limestones in every direction. So 
abundant are these quartz veins that in many places areas free of 





49Fng. and Min. Jour., vol. 41, p. 423, 1886. 


80 


them that are more than a few inches in diameter are rare. There 
can be no question that the shattered condition of the limestones in 
this region has been the most favorable factor in promoting the 
mineralization of the area by permitting the active circulation of 
water. ; 

Less than half a mile north of the Ueberroth mine there is a nor- 
mal fault that has a throw of more than 2,500 feet by which the 
Cambrian limestone and quartzite formations have been faulted out 
and the Ordovician limestone has been brought into contact with the 
pre-Cambrian gneisses. The direction of the fault is approximately 
N. 80° E. Another fault that has the same general direction but 
less throw occurs about half a mile south of Friedensville. It is 
also probable that a parallel fault passes between the Ueberroth and 
Correll mines, with the Ueberroth and Old Hartman mines on the 
north side of the fault and the New Hartman, Correll, and Three 
Corners mines on the south side. This relation would explain the 
ereat discordance of dip of the strata at the different mines. The 
limestone strata and the main ore veins are practically vertical at 
the Ueberroth and Old Hartman mines, whereas at the other three 
mines, which are in a line about N. 80° E., the principal ore veins 
and inclosing limestones dip 35-45° §S. 

The whole of the Saucon.Valley, which is about 7 miles long from 
east to west and from 2 to 4 miles wide, is a region in which the 
structure of the rocks is complicated and in which close folding and 
faulting have shattered the rocks to great depths, although in no 
other place in the valley have the rocks suffered to the same extent 
as in the vicinity of Friedensville. The lines of structure in general 
trend northeastward, parallel to the general trend of the valley and 
to the ridges of gneiss on either side. 

The more persistent veins are conformable with the bedding planes 
of the limestones and consist either of ore which filled openings be- 
tween the beds that had been enlarged by solution or locally of 
sphalerite and pyrite that replaced the limestone and that near the 
surface have been altered to calamine, smithsonite, and limonite. 
The accompanying view of the east side of the open pit of the Ueber- 
roth mine (Pl. V) shows the vertical limestone strata and the open 
fissures from which the ore has been removed. In places the veins 
were as much as 20 feet in width, although in the main they were 
much narrower. They differed greatly in width from place to place, 
even though they were continuous for great distances. 

The veins that follow the joints are approximately at right angles 
to the principal veins and thus break the limestone into more or less 
rectangular blocks, which in the Ueberroth mine, where the strata 
are nearly vertical, was a serious drawback to mining on account 
of the falling of great masses of limestone on the removal of the ore. 


81 


The strike and dip of the main ore veins are fairly regular in each 
of the mines, and the ore bodies pitch to the southwest along the 
_strike at an angle of about 20°, as determined in the workings of the 
Correll and New Hartman mines. The main view of the Correll mine, 
which was exposed in the open cut, did not come to the surface in the 
New Hartman mine, but instead its highest point lay at a depth of 110 
feet. The main veins of the Ueberroth mine also seem to pitch west- 
ward. Although considerable prospecting has been done east of the 
Friedensville-Colesville road, along the strike of the main Ueberroth 
veins, no ore has been found. 

The veins parallel to the limestone strata, which strike N. 80° E., 
were remarkably persistent. The Stadiger vein in the Ueberroth 
mine was worked along the strike for a distance of about 1,000 feet. 
On the other hand, the cross veins that follow the joints, which have 
an average strike of N. 10° W., were comparatively short. Where 
the two sets of veins intersected, the ore bodies were largest and 
richest. Some of these masses of ore were as much as 60 by 20 feet 
in cross section. 

The vertical extent of the ore bodies has not been determined, as 
ore was found at the greatest depth explored, which was about 300 
feet at the New Hartman mine. | 7 

The oxidized ores, which have been practically exhausted in ‘both 
the Old Hartman and -the New Hartman mines, occurred near the 
surfaces in deep pockets that were formed by solution in the lime- 
stones and were associated with residual clay. In the Ueberroth 
mine they persist to the greatest depth reached, probably in relatively 
diminished quantity but unchanged in quality. At lower depths, how- 
ever, they occur, together with some of the blende, as the fillings of 
fissures in the limestone which have been formed through the en- 
largement by solution of openings between bedding planes or joint 
planes, but the blende is mostly a product of metasomatic replace- 
ment in all the mines. 

In some of the parallel veins that are only short distances apart 
the blende was found almost at the surface, whereas in others the 
oxidized ores were abundant at depths of 200 feet. This irregularity 
was a serious drawback in the working of the mines, as it was in- 
advisable to mix the two classes of ore. 

Origin. 

The origin of the Friedensville zine deposits has long been in dis- 
pute, and there is a justifiable difference of opinion regarding the 
explanations that have been offered. Drinker®® supposes “that the 


zine was originally disseminated through the dolomite in the form 
of carbonate or sulphide.” Later the small particles were dissolved 





50Drinker. H. §S., Am. Inst. Min. Eng.  Trans., vol. 1, pp. 67-68, 1873. 


82 


by water that contained carbonic acid, converted into zine sulphate 
by coming into contact with sulphuric acid that was formed by the 
decomposition of pyrite, and were later precipitated in their present 
location as zine sulphide through the action of the animal matter con- 
tained in the limestones. 

Lesley’? held ‘somewhat similar ideas and said that “it is probable 
that they [lead and zine minerals] were deposited with the limestone 
in far greater abundance in ancient ages and were originally brought 
into the Appalachian sea as soluble salts, together with the lime and 
magnesia waters of the primeval rivers,’ and that “the dissolution 
of the lime rocks has produced concentrated masses of zine ore.” 
He compared the zinc ore to the residual deposits of limonite which 
are found in the same rocks but had no explanation for “zine being 
substituted in the place of iron.” 

Clerc’? suggested a deep-seated origin in his published statement 
that “they belong to a class of deposits which seem to warrant a 
belief in their continuance to a considerable depth.” 

Kemp** says that “the veins were evidently filled by circulation 
from below that brought the zinc ore to its present resting place in 
the shattered and broken belt.” | 

In forming a theory to account for the formation of the sphalerite, 
pyrite, and marcasite the connection between the Friedensville zine 
deposits and the limonite ore deposits that occur elsewhere in the 
Saucon Valley should be recognized. Lesley suggested such a con- 
nection but did not enter into details. In the iron mines that lie 
about 13 miles west of the zinc mines considerable pyrite was found 
in the lower depths worked, and more would undoubtedly have been 
found had operations continued. The mines, however, were abandon- 
ed on the closing of the zinc mines, as only the pumping of the zinc 
mines lowered the water in the iron mines and made mining practic- 
able. The iron deposits themselves were not rich enough to justify 
the pumping necessary to work them. Small amounts of zinc were 
also present in the iron ores of these mines. 


The primary source of the pyrite and sphalerite must have been 
the crystalline rocks of pre-Cambrian age, most of which were origin- 
ally igneous. Pyrite and magnetite are common minerals in the 
pre-Cambrian gneisses throughout the southeastern part of Pennsyl- 
vania. Zine minerals, however, have not been recognized it these 
gneisses, but there can be little doubt that zinc in some form was 
present in the ancient rocks that furnished the materials for the 
thick Paleozoie sediments of this section. In the long ages during 
which several thousands of feet of Cambrian and Ordovician lime- 





5iLesley, J. P., Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey Summary Final Rept., vol. 15 pps 
436-439, 1892. 


52Clere, F. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1882, pp. 361-365, 1883. 
53Kemp, J. F., Ore deposits of the United States and Canada, 2ed., pp. 250-251, 1906. 


83 


stones were deposited the iron and zinc minerals must have been 
‘arried into the sea and there precipitated in minute disseminated 
particles in the limestones as sulphides and carbonates. Many of the 
limestones show small particles of pyrite, and analyses indicate that 
they contain considerable iron carbonate. The zine was probably 
precipitated as a sulphide, although part of it may have been precipi- 
tated as a carbonate. 


Though much of the ivon and zine may still be disseminated in the 
limestone these substances have locally been concentrated by circulat- 
ing water. In the Friendensville district this action has taken place. 
The limestones of the Saucon Valley probably contained larger 
amounts of zine and iron originally than other deposits of equal ex- 
tent, for traces of zinc are more common in the limestones of the 
Saucon Valley than in those elsewhere in the Allentown quadrangle. 


The waters that concentrated the sphalerite, pyrite, and marcasite 
were doubtless mainly of meteoric origin, for the only post-Ordovi- 
cian intrusive rocks in the whole region are the Triassic diabase dikes 
exposed near Coopersburg, about 4 miles distant. Neither these 
rocks nor the tinderlying magma from which they were derived are 
likely to have been the source of magmatic waters which to any large 
degree segregated the Friedensville sphalerite and pyrite. 

If the deposits were formed by meteoric waters it is of practical 
importance to determine whether the concentration was effected by 
ascending or descending waters. If descending waters were the 
agents of transportation the deposits should not extend much below 
the ground-water level, whereas if they were formed through the 
agency of ascending waters they may continue to great depths. <At 
present the ground water level les within 30 feet of the surface in 
the vicinity of the mines. As the ore deposits have been explored to 
a depth of 300 feet and give every indication of continuation to 
greater depths, ascending waters must have brought the sphalerite 
and pyrite to their present position unless the ground-water level 
formerly lay at much greater depths than now. 


Throughout the limestone areas of the Allentown quadrangle 
water rises in many places under artesian pressure along fault planes 
and zones of rock shattered by intense folding. Perhaps most of 
the springs in the quadrangle have been formed in this way. Flow- 
ing wells have also been obtained in many places and indicate the 
presence of ascending currents of meteoric water. The temperature 
of none of these waters is high enough to warrant the use of the 
term thermal in describing them, yet they maintain a uniform tem- 
perature throughout the year and are slightly warmer than the aver- 
age surface waters, and thus they indicate a fairly deep-seated circu- 
lation. . 


84 


The writer believes that in the formation of the Friedensville zine 
deposits downward-percolating waters that contained carbonic acid, 
which was derived from the atmosphere and organic matter, sulphur- 
ic acid, which was derived from the oxidation of pyrite, and possibly 
some organie acids dissolved the small disseminated particles of 
zine and iron carbonates and sulphides and carried them in solution 
to places where the water found an easy escape upward, as in the 
shattered and faulted zones near Friedensville. Several hundred 
and perhaps several thousand feet of limestone and shales overlay 
the present exposed strata while this work of concentration was most 
active, and consequently the waters were of considerably higher tem- 
perature and had greater soluble power than those of the present 
time. The marcasite found with the pyrite indicates, however, that 
the ore-bearing solutions precipitated their load under moderate tem- 
peratures. 

The pyrite and sphalerite were deposited in part in the fissures 
through which the solutions passed and in part metasomatic replace- 
ment of the limestone. At the intersections of fissures through which 
solutions were passing the mingling of waters of somewhat different 
composition caused increased precipitation and resulted in the form- 
ation of the great masses of ore already described. Metasomatic re- 
placement of the dolomitic limestones seems to have been much more 
common than precipitation of ore in existing fissures. The dense 
black finely crystalline masses of sphalerite preserve the texture of 
the original limestone. In some places the contact between the ore 
and the limestone is sharp and regular, but in most places it is 
otherwise, probably owing to the lack of homogeneity of the greater 
part of the limestone, which permitted the solutions to migrate dif- 
ferent distances from the trunk channels. | 

The Friedensville ore deposits represent the segregation of zinc 
minerals that were obtained from a great thickness of limestones. 
The limestones in the vicinity of the mines are probably 2,500 to 
3,000 feet thick, and perhaps as great a thickness has been removed 
by erosion. The probability is that the ore was collected through- 
out a thickness of limestones aggregating 5,000 to 6,000 feet. This 
thickness is approximately twice that of the limestone formations of 
the region, but owing to the intense folding to which they were sub- 
jected the vertical thickness in the Saucon Valley was probably 
doubled. 

The process of segregation was undoubtedly slow, but it has ex- 
tended from the end of the Ordovician period, when the first great 
orogenic movements folded and faulted the limestones of the region, 
up to the present time. The segregation of pyrite by meteoric waters 
is probably still taking place in the region, and no doubt dissemin- 
ated zinc minerals are likewise being dissolved near the surface, 


85 


carried downward to great depths, and deposited from ascending 
waters. Thus the formation of the deposits represents a time inter- 
val of millions of years. | 


The deposits as originally formed consisted almost entirely of 
pyrite, marcasite, and.sphalerite. Calamine, smithsonite, limonite, 
greenockite, and much of the quartz, calcite, and dolomite are all 
secondary and are the products of alteration by surficial waters. 
Water charged with silica converted part of the sphalerite into cala- 
mine, while carbonic acid changed other portions into smithsonite. 
In all probability part of the sulphide ore was oxidized to the sul- 
phate and removed in solution, though the richness of the calamine 
and smithsonite veins seems to indicate that little of the zine was 
removed. Parts of the pyrite and marcasite was converted into 
ocherous limonite, but the greater part seems to have been converted 
into ferrous sulphate and carried away in solution. Some of this 
sulphate may have been reprecipitated as pyrite or marcasite at 
lower levels, but evidence of this reaction is lacking. 

No indication of the sulphide enrichment of the zine ore was 
shown, and it is doubtful whether the sphalerite ore has been ap- 
preciably enriched. If it was not the sulphide ore should maintain 
approximately the same tenor to the lowest depths of profitable 
mining. In few regions is the sulphide enrichment of zinc ores of 
much consequence, and the Friedensville deposits seem to be no ex- 
ception. Some secondary sphalerite in the form of small honey- 
yellow crystals that line the walls of small cavities in the limestones 
can be frequently found, but it is of little economic importance. 
Crystals of quartz, calcite, and dolomite occur in a similar manner. 
As to the paragenesis of the minerals, pseudomorphs of smithsonite 
after dolomite, and quartz crystals that are coated with smithsonite 
containing cadmium show the later formation of the zinc carbonate. 

Near the surface most of the sulphide ore was changed, although 
some veins that were probably more compact and less permeable were 
altered to a depth of only a few feet. In the Ueberroth mine large 
masses of calamine at the greatest depths worked, about 225 feet, 
show an unusual depth of alteration. There is a strong probability 
that some of the more permeable veins will yield oxidized ore at 
considerably greater depths. 

As any vein is followed down the blende makes its appearance at 
the side of the vein whereas the calamine and smithsonite occupy a 
continually narrowing portion of the center of the vein, thus showing 
that the downward-percolating waters found an easier passage 
through the middle of the vein than at either side. The presence of 
sulphide and oxidized ores at the same level was a serious incon- 
venience on account of the necessity for mining the two kinds of ore 
separately and it is said that much sulphide ore which might have 


86 


been removed at small cost was left in the mine. For the reasons 
already mentioned and also because the spelter made from the 
oxidized ores was superior to that made from the sulphide ore the’ 
failure to remove all the blende was not considered much of a loss. 


Mining. 


As the oxidized ore lay at the surface in a mixture of residual clay 
and limestone boulders, it was natural to begin mining by the open- 
pit method. At the Ueberroth mine, where the ore was first dis- 
covered, about 100,000 tons of ore was removed in this way. On the 
exhaustion of the large surface pocket the ore was followed down- 
ward along the numerous crevices in the limestone, which were 
filled with loose oxidized ore. On account of the falling of large 
masses of limestone open-pit mining was finally abandoned. Shafts 
were then sunk, and the ore was hoisted. At.the Ueberroth and Old 
Hartman mines inclined slopes were run for the working of the deep- 
er-lying ore bodies to the southwest, and from them levels were 
opened along the veins. 

The instability of the inclosing limestone strata required much 
timbering to hold the rock in place, and many shafts and drifts were 
destroyed by the settling of great masses of rock. At the Ueberroth 
mine several shafts had to be abandoned for this reason. 


In sinking the shafts and slopes and in driving the drifts it was 
necessary to remove some of the limestone. Some of this material 
was hoisted and thrown on the dump, but a considerable portion was 
taken back into the mine to fill old stopes and to underpin loose rock. 


Almost at the beginning of mining the water problem became seri- 
ous. The shattered and cavernous character of the limestones of 
the Saucon Valley permits easy passage for the underground waters, 
so that the waters from practically the entire upper part of the 
valley readily found their way into the mines as the workings were 
deepened sufficiently to produce a gradient requisite for flow. 


At the depth of 46 feet the flow of water was very strong, and at 
the depth of 150 feet it became necessary to install what was at that 
time the largest pumping engine in the world. This engine, called 
“the President,” was started January 29, 1872, and was run con- 
tinuously until October 28, 1876, and for a few short periods later. 
This one engine had a calculated pumping capacity of 12,000 galions 
a minute from a depth of 300 feet, although it rarely if ever reached 
that figure. Most of the time it pumped less than 9,000 gallons a 
minute. It was never necessary to run all the pumps at their full 
capacity in order to keep the works free of water. Some published 
figures that give the amount of water pumped are greatly exagger- 
ated, 


87 


The great amount of water pumped from the mines has suggested 
a remote source for some of the water, but calculations show that 
after allowing for 40 per cent evaporation of the average rainfall of 
the entire drainage basin of Saucon Creek the amount of water 
pumped from the mines formed only about one-third of the remain- 
ing water falling in the valley. Hence there seems to be no reason 
to doubt that all the mine waters were of local meteoric origin. 

When the big engine was running and pumping the water from 
the Ueberroth mine at a depth of 225 feet, practically all the wells 
and springs in the Saucon Valley went dry, and lawsuits against the 
company were threatened. Wells were drained as far to the south- 
west as Limeport, a distance of 43 miles, and about 34 miles to the 
east. For a time the city of Philadelphia considered a plan to run 
a pipe line from the mines to Philadelphia as an additional source of 
water supply. 

At one time the water of Saucon Creek, at a point about 14 miles 
southwest of the mine, entirely disappeared through an easy passage- 
way into the mine. By means of refuse thrown into the creek bed 
the opening was sealed. When the large engine was stopped in 1876 
the creek below the mine shrank to a small part of its former volume, 
and it regained its normal size only after the mine had filled with 
water. In 1868 the pumping cost was said to be $6 to the ton of 
ore, and in 1876, when the Ueberroth mine was closed, the pumping 
cost was said to be $4 to the ton of ore, the greatest item in the en- 
tire cost of mining. The high cost was due to the fact that only one 
shift was worked, and altogether the daily output was only 55 to 60 
tons. For the same cost of pumping a much greater output could 
have been made. 

On account of the different treatment required by the oxidized ores 
(calamine and smithsonite) and the sulphide ores (sphalerite as- 
sociated with pyrite) and the difficulty of separating them if they 
should become mixed, the mining of the different kinds of ores was 
carried on separately so far as possible. In places some sulphide ore 
was left in the mines, even though it could have been easily removed. 
An additional reason for the failure to remove all the sulphide ore 
was the fact that these ores had to be roasted to remove a large por- 
tion of the sulphur ‘before they were sent to the furnaces, and the 
companies were in danger of being enjoined by the courts if the 
sulphur fumes at Friedensville or South Bethlehem should become 
obnoxious. It is possible that if the mines are reopened the sulphur 
gases may be economically utilized in the manufacture of sulphuric 
acid. The greatest drawback to the profitable production of sulphur- 
ic acid will undoubtedly be the large amount of limestone necessarily 
mined with the ore. Sulphuric acid was made at Bergen Point, N. 
J., from the sulphide ore from the Correll mine, For a time the proj- 


88 


ect was profitable, but the increasing amoynt of limestone in the 
ore finally caused the company to abandon the attempt to utilize the 
sulphur. 


Milling. 


Both the oxidized and the sulphide ores as they came from the 
mine were mixed with impurities and had to be concentrated before 
being sent to the furnaces. In the calamine and smithsonite the 
impurities were mainly clay and small pieces of limestone and a few 
fragments of pyrite and sphalerite, whereas in the sphalerite ore the 
chief gangue material was limestone. For these reasons the two 
kinds of ore required different treatment. 

As the oxidized ores were brought from the mine the larger masses 
were broken by sledges, and the richer fragments that happened to 
be fairly free from impurities were picked out by hand and sent 
directly to the spelter works. The small fragments mixed with clay 
were passed through log washers or cone washers. From the wash- 
ers the ore was discharged on grizzlies or revolving screens and then 
thrown on picking tables, where boys removed pieces of limestone, 
pyrite, and sphalerite. The greater portion of the concentrate ob- 
tained from the washers went to the oxide furnaces. 

The water from the washers, which carried the clay and small bits 
of ore and rock, was drained into settling ponds. Later much of 
the coarser material that had been deposited near the inlet to these 
pits was dug and worked in buddles or tossing tubs, and considerable 
fine calamine and smithsonite were thus recovered. A four-compart- 
ment Hartz jig with an eccentric stroke was tried on these sands but 
was not successful. In a few places the tailings were found to con- 
tain more zinc than the heads. The failure was due to many thin 
flat pieces of calamine that had a tendency to go with the tailings. 
The concentrate recovered from the sands was sent to the oxide 
works. The average zine content of the dried oxidized concentrate 
as sent to the furnaces was about 20 per cent. 

The intimate mixture of the sphalerite ore and the limestone ren- 
dered concentration difficult. A gradation from pure sphalerite into 
pure limestone could be seen in some specimens of ore as brought 
from the mine. From such material a clean product could be ob- 
tained only after extremely fine grinding. The result was that 
during the period of most active operations the richer ore was 
picked by hand and sent to the roasting furnaces or roasting heaps 
and the remainder thrown aside. 

After 1876 sizing and jigging of the sulphide ores was tried. 
Hand jigs were first used, and these were later replaced by Hartz 
jigs having several compartments. They were not entirely satis- 
factory, as the tailings were invariably high in zine. 


89 


The best of the sulphide ore was roasted in reverberatory furnaces 
for spelter. The lower grade ore was often heap roasted and sent 
to the oxide furnaces or reroasted in the reverberatory furnaces and 
sent to the spelter works. 

The best of the hand-picked sphalerite ore contained from 42 
to 44 per cent zinc; the remainder contained from 15 to 25 per cent. 


Outlook for future development. 


The belief is general that the Friedensville mines were closed on 
account of the exhaustion of the ore. This belief, however, is in- 
correct, as the ore bodies were as large in the lowest workings as near 
the surface; the veins give no evidence of dying out as the depth in- 
creases and the sulphide ores show little change in tenor. How 
much ore remains is purely a matter of conjecture, but there is every 
reason to believe that the mines can still furnish a large tonnage of 
sulphide ore as well as considerable calamine and smithsonite ore. 
The property owned by the Friedensville Zine Co. in Saucon Valley 
is shown on Plate IV. 

Another frequently reported cause for closing the mines was the 
threatened litigation of the farmers whose wells were drained by 
the pumping that was required to keep the mines free of water. This 
explanation is likewise without foundation, as the courts have repeat- 
edly upheld the principle that no mining company is liable for dam- 
ages incurred by the withdrawal of water from previous users so long 
as this withdrawal is necessary in order to remove the ore and the 
water is neither sold nor disposed of in such a manner as to damage 
other property. 

The chief reason why the principal operating company, the Lehigh 
Zinc Co., closed its mines, which consisted of the Ueberroth, Old 
Hartman, and Three Cornered Lot mines, in 1876, was its inability to 
compete with the New Jersey Zinc Co. in the manufacture of zinc 
oxide made from the zinc ores of Sterling Hill and Franklin Furnace, 
N. J., or with the companies operating in the Central States in the pro- 
duction of spelter. The Lehigh Zine Co. owned the Wetherill patents 
for the manufacture of zine oxide and had previously prevented the 
New Jersey Zine Co. from producing zine oxide from the New Jersey 
ores in an expensive suit brought for infringement of patent. The 
Wetherill patents having expired in 1876, the New Jersey Zine Co. was 
about to enter the field with new oxide furnaces. As it was costing 
the Lehigh Zinc Co. from $4 to $6 for each ton of ore raised merely to 
pump the water from the mines, whereas the ore at Sterling Hill 
could be loaded on the cars at a cost not exceeding 75 cents a ton, 
it was foreseen that competition would be ruinous to the Lehigh Zinc 
Co. An agreement was therefore made by which the Lehigh Zine Co. 


Le 


ing. saudemin, Jour:, vol. 22, p.. 216, 1876, 


90 


> 


closed its mines and contracted with the New Jersey Zine Co. for 1,000 
tons of ore a month from the New Jersey mines for a period of five 
years. 

Clerc’, who was familiar with the operations of the Friedensville 
mines at that time, says: 


The causes which led to the extinction of the Lehigh Zine Co. and the abandon- 
ment of the two first named mines Ueberroth and Old Hartman were briefly these: 
The impossibility of competing successfully in the oxide market with the owner's 
of the big mine in Sussex County, N. J., after the expiration of the patents cover- 
ing the oxide process left them free to take the trade, or in the sheet zine and metal 
market with the western smelters using cheaper and richer ores, at a time when a 
general depression of all manufacturing enterprises made it unusually burdensome 
to carry the heavy bonded indebtedness incurred during a period of high prices and 
general inflation,in acquiring mines and putting up machinery to work them, Under 
more favorable circumstances it is probable that these mines could have been 
profitably worked for years to come; for although the pumping expenses were heavy, 
they were not excessive, considered as a royalty on the ore, and these charges per 
ton would diminish in proportion to the amount of ore mined. 


The present owners have not announced their intentions regarding 
these mines, but should the borings that are now being made show 
favorable results it is hoped that the mines may be reopened shortly 
and again become active producers. 


Zinc Mines. 


Ueberroth mine—The Ueberroth mine was the largest and most profitable of all 
the Friedensville mines. It was worked continuously from 1853 to 1876 end: for 
short periods in 1886 and 1891 and produced abcut 300,000 tons of calamine 
and smithsonite ore. In no other mine in the region did the oxidized ore continue 
to such depths. To a depth of 150 feet the oxidized ores were found between loose 
blocks of limestone, some of enormous size. At that depth, however, the limestone 
became solid and the ore veins, which were 12 to 40 feet in width, had well-defined 
walls. The limestone strata and the main ore beds which lie between them are 
practically vertical in the Ueberroth mine and’ strike N. 80° E. 

There were two very rich veins in this mine known as the Stadiger and Trotter, 
both of which were worked continuously for a. distance of about 1,000 feet along 
the strike. Another productive ore body was known as the Blende vein. This vein 
was not worked so extensively on account of the larger amount of sulphide ore 
which it contained. At the deepest level worked this vein was very well-developed 
and yielded ore that ran about 30 per cent zine. One-third of the ore was rich 
enough to be sent directly to the smelters; the remaining two-thirds, however, 
required concentration. 


Clere®® gives the following description of this mine: 


The ore came close to the surface, and a very rich pocket was found in the clay 
above and around limestone boulders, which is estimated to have produced 100,000 _ 
tons of ore. When this body of ore was exhausted the ore was followed down in 
erevices between the boulders. "These crevices lie in planes parallel to the bedding 
of the limestone, or in planes perpendicular to it, and preserve great regularity in 
their position and a parallel course for several hundred yards in a northeast and 
southwest direction ; they are nearly vertical, and at the depth of 225 feet, to 
which the mine was worked, showed no signs of closing up. The ores at first were 
exciusively calamine and smithsonite, but at greater depth blende made its appear- 
ance, coating the walls of the crevices and in some cases penetrating into them 
several feet; in other cases segregated as rich seams, which nearly filled the cross 
openings. At first it was confined to the northeastern end of the mine, but at 
the lowest depth reached it could be traced almost continuously to the extreme 
southwestern end. The dip of the ore body appeared to be regular and to the south- 
west. Six of these parallel crevices were worked and about as many crossings, 
and where they intersected rich bunches of ore were found, some of which were 
as much as 60 feet across and 20 feet thick. All the indications seemed to point 
with increasing certainty to the existence of a backbone or underlying deposit of 


55Clere, F. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1882, p. 365, 1883. 
55Clerc, F. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1882, pp. 362-363, 1883. 





91 


blende, out of the reach of the action of meteoric waters, from the continuation 
of which the oxidized ores have been derived. Timbering the mine was always a 

. . . 
serious difficulty, but the greatest obstacle to be overcome was the water. Even at 
a depth of 46 feet the flow was already very strong; at the depth of 150 feet it 
was found necessary to put in what was then the largest pumping engine in the 
world. This engine, which is a single cylinder, double acting, condensing, walking- 
beam engine, with a pair of flywheels, has a 110-ineh eylinder and a 10-foot stroke 
and is calculated to work four 30-inch plunger pumps and four 30-inch lift pumps, 
with 10-foot stroke, and to take water from a depth of 300 feet. At the time it 
was stopped it was running from six to seven strokes a minute, and was working 
three pairs of 30-inch pumps and one pair of 22-inch pumps, and was easily hamnd- 
ling all the water that came to them. The pump shaft and foundation for the ‘en- 
gine were no less remarkable in their way. The latter was built up from the 
solid rock, 60 feet below the surface of the ground of hewn blocks of Potsdam 
sandstone; the former, which measured 30 feet by 20 feet in the clear, was started 
on a small crevice and timbered with 12-inch square yellow pine sticks and divided 
into three compartments and further strengthened by two open brattices of the 
same timber. When the pitch of the vein carried it out of the shaft the rest of 
the depth was sunk through solid rock. 

Several shafts were sunk at this mine, but these have been destroyed by eaving. 
At present the old open pit, which is approximately circular and measures about 
480 feet in diameter, is filled with water the level of which lies less than 30 feet 
from the surface. Nearly all the buildings which were formerly near the mine hsjve 
been completely razed; the pumping-engine house and office, the only ones remaining, 


are in ruins. (See Pl. V). 


Old Hartman mine.—About a quarter of a mile southwest of the Ueberroth 
mine is the Old Hartman mine. which now consists of two open pits about 400 by 
250 feet in extent, both nearly filled with water. Like the Ueberroth, the Old 
Hartman mine was first worked exclusively for calamine and smithsonite, but 
large bodies of blende were found nearer the surface than in the Ueberroth mine. The 
oxidized ores were worked to the depth of 150 feet, although much sulphide ore 
was found nearer the surface. The last work done in this mine was the driving 
of a slope to work 4a fine vein of sphalerite ore, 


The limestones of the Old Hartman mine show much brecciation (See Pl. VI. B. 
p. 104) but are less cavernous than those in the Ueberroth mine. The water problem 
here was less serious than in the Ueberroth mine and the mine was operated for a 
year after the large engine at the Ueberroth pit wa stopped. Had grouting been 
employed the necessary pumping might have been considerably reduced. At the pres- 
ent time the water level in the two openings is somewhat lower than in the 
Ueberroth pit. 


The Old Hartman mine was worked both by open cut and by shafts sunk in the 
limestones. The vein system is similar to that of the Ueberroth mine, although 
no veins were followed for so great a distance. The veins of the two mines seem 
to be entirely distinct. The veins worked are shown on the map (PI. IV). 

V 

Correll mine.-—The Correll or Saucon mine is about one-eighth mile southeast 
of the Old Hartman mine. It was actively worked as early as 1859 and much of 
the time between that dajte and 1881, but since that time it has furnished little 
ore. The mine produced less oxidized ore in proportion to the sulphide ore than did 
the Ueberroth mine. It was worked by open cut until 1876, after which under- 
ground mining predominated, and when work ceased its depth was 200 feet. The 
limestone strata and the principal ore veins which lie between them dip to the 
south at angles that range from 30° to 40°. The limestones are regular and show 
few effects of disturbance or of solution. 

In 1876 a 12-foot vein of sulphide ore was being worked. At greater depth this 
width increased to 40 feet and in one place to 50 feet. The whole length of working 
in the Correll mine was about 700 feet along the strike. The veins were worked 
to the western limits of the property of the Correll estate and are continued in 
the New Hartman mine. 


The open pit of the Correll mine, which is now partly filled with water, measures 
apprceximately 200 by 300 feet. 


New Hartman mine—The Hartman mine, which adjoins the Correll property 
on the west, is the only mine in the region that was exclusively worked by under- 
ground methods. The ore was struck in a vertical shaft at a depth of 110 feet and 
continued downward to a depth of 200 feet. Very little oxidized ore was found. 
When work ceased the principal ore vein was said to be 50 feet wide. Its strike 
was almost due east, and the dip was 35° S. 


ALLENTOWN ATLAS PLATE V 





A. Ueberroth mine, Friedensville, while in operation, 
about 1877. 





B. Recent view of Ueberroth mine, 


93 


Three-Cornered Lot mine.—This mine is located east of the Friedensville-Coles- 
ville road, about 700 feet northeast of the Friedensville Church. The opeu cut, 
which is partly filled with water, is irregular in shape and has an average diameter 
of about 250 feet. Here, as in most of the mines, open-cut mining finally gave place 
to underground mining, and several veins were followed under the road and beneath 
the property that lies west of the road north of the church. The veins undoubtedly 
belong to the same system as those of the Correll and New Hartman mines and have 
the same general strike and dip. The exposed limestone strats| dip on the average 
35° S. and strike N. 85° BH. 


Bibliography. 

Blake, N. P., On the occurrence of crystallized carbonate of lan- 
thanum: Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 16, pp. 228-230, 1853. 

Anonymous, Pennsylvania and Lehigh Zinc Co.: Min. Mag., vol 1, 
pp. 944-546, 1853; vol. 2, pp. 99-100, 1854. 

Whitney, J. D., The metallic wealth of the United States; Pennsyl- 
vania, pp. 351-352, Philadelphia, 1854. 

Smith, J. L., Reexamination of American minerals—Lanthanite: 
Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 18, pp. 378-879, 1854. 

Genth, F. A., Contributions to’ mineralogy—Lanthanite: Am. Jour. 
Sci., 2d ser., vol. 28, pp. 425-426, 1857. 

Rogers, H. D., The geology of Pennsylvania, vol: 2, pp. 101, 286, 
Philadelphia, 1858. 

Henry, M.S., History of the Lehigh Valley, pp. 285-238, Easton, 1860. 

Drinker, H. 8., Abstract of a paper on the mines and works of the 
Lehigh Zine Co.: Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., vol. 2, pp. 67-75, 
1871. | | 

Reichel, W. C., The Crown Iron, near Bethlehem, Pa., pp. 141-144, 
Philadelphia, 1872. 

Anonymous, Die Gruben and Werke der Lehigh-Zink-Gesellschaft 
im Pennsylvania: Berg-u, hiittenm. Zeitung, pp. 51-53, 61-62, 
1877. 

Genth, F. A., Preliminary report on the mineralogy of Pennsylvania: 
Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey Rept. B, pp. 15, 18-20, 57, 
69, 106, 107, 120-22, 149, 161-8, 165, 166, Harrisburg, 1875. 

Anonymous, Pumping engine at the Lehigh Zine Works, Friedens- 
ville, Pa.: Sci. Am. Suppl., vol. 2, pp. 502-504, 1876. 

Raymond, R. W., Zinc: Appleton’s American Encyclopedia, vol. 16, 
pp. 816-826, New York, 1876. 

Anonymous, The Lehigh Zine Company: History of Northampton 
County, Pennsylvania, pp. 211-212, Philadelphia, 1877. 

Clerc, F. C., The mining and metallurgy of zinc in the United 
States; Pennsylvania; U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1882, 
pp. 361-365, 1883; Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 36, pp. 148-149, 1885 ; 
Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. D3, vol. 2, p. 239, 1883. 


94. 


Eyerman, John, The Friedensville zinc mines: Eng. and Min. Jour., 
vol. 36, pp. 220, 374, 1883; Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey 
Summary Final Rept., vol. 1, p. 442, 1892. . 

Lesley, J. P., The Saucon zine mines of Lehigh County: Pennsyl- 
vania Second Geol. Survey, Summary Final Rept., vol. 1, pp. 
436-439, 1892 

Kemp, J. F., Ore deposits of the United States and Canada, 2d ed., 
ae 250-251, New York, 1906. 

ce also general mining news and editorials in the Engineering 
pei Mining Journal, as follows: Vol. 13, pp. 65-66, 75, 329, 1872; 
vol. 20, p. 8, 1875; vol. 22, pp. 216, 325-826, 1876; vol. :39, p. 94, 
1885; vol. 44, p. 423, 1886; vol. 48, p. 84, 1887; vol. 50, p. 581, 1890. 


COPPER. 


Throughout the eastern United States the rocks of Triassic age 
in many places contain traces of copper. Many of these Trassic copper 
deposits have been worked, particularly in colonial times, but very few 
operations have been successful. In the Allentown quadrangle cop- 
per minerals occur in two places, and both localities have been 
prospected. One of the deposits is 1 mile south of Leithsville and 
the other about the same distance southeast of Leithsville. <A few 
years ago they were investigated by James Fisher, of Bethlehem, 
who dug several- trenches and shallow shafts but did not succeed 
in discovering any ore that was commercially valuable. 

In both localities the minerals, associated rocks, and manner of 
occurrence are similar. The ore-bearing rock is a conglomerate that 
is loosely cemented with red to gray clay or shale. The pebbles 
have a maximum size of 4 inches, are well rounded, and consist of 
quartzite, limestones, and shales. The copper is in the form of 
malachite and occurs as a thin coating that surrounds the quartzite 
and limestone pebbles. It has in part replaced some of the cement- 
ing material that was formerly present but in the main has been 
formed by precipitation in the pore spaces of the conglomerate. 
In some specimens the coating of malachite about the pebbles is a 
quarter of an inch thick, but usually it is thinner. 

As the copper-bearing rock has never been thoroughly sampled 
the value of the ore can mi be determined. In picked specimens 
the copper content is 4 or 5 per cent, but the strata thus far exposed 
that carry the malachite average only a fraction of 1 per cent copper, 
which is entirely too low to be of any economic value. The malachite 
is irregularly distributed throughout the conglomerate and _ is 
not confined to any definite horizon or series of beds—a condition 
that would be a serious inconvenience in the development of the 
property. The extent of the copper-bearing rocks is not known, as 
the region is covered with vegetation and hillside wash. 


95 


Although there can be no disagreement regarding the value of 
the deposit thus far exposed, an unfounded belief exists that deeper 
development would reveal valuable ore. The existence of valuable 
ore is, however, highly improbable, although the character of the 
ore would unquestionably change with depth. The malachite would 
give place to sulphide minerals, either chalcocite or chalcopyrite, but 
the tenor would not necessarily be changed. 

The origin of the copper in the rocks is believed to have been 
entirely independent of any relation with igneous rocks. The near- 
est point at which the Triassic diabase, the only igneous rocks in 
the region of more recent date than the conglomerates that carry 
the copper, comes to the surface is about 3 miles south of the de- 
posit. The only way in which the diabase could have contributed 
to the deposition of the copper would have been by the intrusion of 
other dikes in the vicinity of the deposit which never reached the 
surface. Hot ascending waters, stimulated by the proximity of the 
mass of heated rock, could have carried the copper from these 
dikes into the conglomerates in the form of sulphides, which later 
changed under atmospheric action into the basic carbonate that is 
now present. 

The deposits have probably originated in the way that so many 
other copper deposits in red sandstones in different parts of the 
world are supposed to have been formed. The inclosing rocks were 
deposited rapidly under arid conditions, following a long period 
of rock decay, and possibly some copper sulphide minerals from 
the pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks near by were swept into the 
same basin. When later percolating waters that contained salt or 
gypsum in solution passed through these beds the copper was seg- 
regated by solution and reprecipitation, probably in the form of 
chalecocite. The later alteration to malachite has been effected by 
the action of downward-moving waters charged with oxygen and car- 
bon dioxide. 


MANGANESE. 


Throughout the region there is abundant evidence of the presence 
of manganese in the form of dendritic markings of manganese oxide 
along the joint cracks of decaved rocks, especially in the areas of 
gneiss. Under such conditions local segregations of manganese oxide © 
should be found. However, as the hydrous oxides of iron and man- 
ganese are dissolved and precipitated in the same manner, the man- 
ganese oxide, the less abundant of the two, is seldom found distinct 
from the iron oxide. Almost all the limonite iron ores of the region 
contain some Manganese, and in some mines the ore averages from 
1 to 3 per cent of manganese. Such ores have always been in demand 
for the production of basic iron. In general, the limonite ores of the 


96 


Cambrian quartzites, which are found along the slopes of the moun- 
tains and which are termed mountain ores, contain the highest per- 
centage of manganese. The manganese-bearing material is in most 
of the ore a mixture of pyrolusite and psilomelane, although speci- 
mens of each separately are sometimes found. 

Where the manganese is associated with limonite it can seldom 
be recognized except by the darker color of the ore. Where limonite 
geodes occur there is a tendency for the manganese oxide to be 
present in largest amounts in the inner layers, which commonly 
show botryoidal surfaces and fibrous structure. 

In certain limonite mines layers of ore high enough in their 
manganese content to be called manganese ores have been found. 
Several mines in the region, especially those along the north side 
of the mountain northeast of Emaus, have shipped small quanti- 
ties of this ore, but it was always incidental to the mining of the 
iron ore. In the Wharton mine of the Thomas Iron Co., about 13 
miles southeast of Hellertown, the iron ore averaged more than 
2 per cent of manganese and here and there specimens of nearly pure 
manganese oxide were found. One of these specimens, which showed 
beautiful dendritic structure yielded the following results when 
analyzed in the laboratory of the Thomas Iron Co.: 


Analysis of manganese ore from Wharton mine. 


Hepryae ote l oe eee ae ie eee 0.868 

STO ERG sli oe eee ees 46 

ee, et 2) Hn Baten Gh .046 

IVER) See ccchi as cesta Shae nud tam aes eae TAT jp ; 


The manganese content of the limonite oreg found in the limestone 
regions is apt to be lower than in those just described, yet in some 
mines high-grade manganese ores have been found. In the Ironton 
mines, which are in the limestone region a short distance west of 
Coplay and hence outside the borders of the Allentown quadrangle, 
though they are similar to the mines of this area, two layers of high- 
erade manganese ore were found. ‘They yielded several hundred tons 
of ore. Three different specimens were analyzed, as follows: 


Analyses of manganese ores from Ironton, Lehigh County, Pa. 


1 2 3 
Mi oe oS ee eee en ce 52.631 56.58 17.648 
EG te pee aah es | ee ee 2 SOUS oe eee 26.400 
eae oS Pen EIS, Sw .063 trace 095 
ieee nt Oe ee ee, trace 2) 3 fede .010 


Sample 1 analyzed by A. S. McCreath, 2 by Henry Pemberton, and 3 by David MeCreath. 


Although manganese is widespread throughout the region in as- 
sociation with the limonite ores there is no probability that any 
deposit is rich enough in manganese to be developed independently 
of the iron ores. In the Allentown quadrangle manganese ore must 


97 


be regarded as a by-product in the working of the limonite iron 
mines. 

An interesting occurrence of manganese was observed in May, 
1924 in an excavation for a building adjoining the Lehigh University 
campus on the north slope of South Mountain about 320 feet above 
sea level. The exposure revealed 5 to 10 feet of glacial till overlying 
a water-deposited fine glacial sand 4 to 16 feet thick. The till was 
composed of rounded and angular rocks, ranging in size up to 34 feet 
in diameter and enclosed in a stiff clay matrix. The sand was well 
sorted, and strained brownish yellow by ferruginous matter. A 
layer of clay was said to underlie the sand but was not exposed. 
Within the sand, in irregular patches or in occasional bands, and 
commonly at the contact of the sand and overlying till, concentra- 
tion of manganese dioxide and some ferric oxide had cemented the 
sands into a manganiferous sandstone. In some places the pyrolu- 
site, seemingly with little or no limonite, was surrounded by a thin 
band in which the limonite was present with little or no pyrolusite. 
The pyrolusite penetrates a large glacial conglomerate boulder in the 
base of the till to a depth of about one-half inch where the till is in 
contact with the sand. At the contact of the sand and till a few speci- 
mens of almost pure pyrolusite with marked botryoidal structure 
were observed where the crystallization of the mineral from solution 
had pushed aside the clay. No positive replacement of the sand by 
either the pyrolusite or the limonite was noted, although there may 
well have been some action of this kind. 

Although the deposit is of no economic importance it is of interest 
because of its recent formation and its origion. It is post-glacial 
in age as the till and sand were both formed during the Ice Age. 
The sand was laid down in a lake (Lake Packer) that existed in the 
region when the ice in its advance dammed the Lehigh River until 
the waters flowed westward into the Schuylkill. Later the ice de- 
posited the till on the sand. 

The source of the manganese was undoubtedly the pyroxenes and 
amphiboles of the gneisses that form the mountains. As these min- 
erals were decomposed the manganese and iron present in them 
passed into solution and were carried down the hill into the sand 
stratum. Here the downward movement of the solutions was stop- 
ped by clay, or for some reason the manganese and iron were pre- 
cipitated from the stagnant solution in the form of pyrolusite and 
limonite. 

This occurrence shows plainly the way in which manganese de- 
posits are forming and gives reason for believing that small de- 
posits of workable grade may be found in some sections of this 
immediate region or elsewhere in the southeastern part of the State. 


7B 


98 


GOLD. 


Gold is discussed in this report merely to call attention to its 
absence in this region in profitable quantities and to warn credulous 
persons to avoid the expenditure of time and money in its search. 
Reports are current that gold has been found in many places in the 
southern half of the quadrangle, and considerable money has been 
spent in the sinking of shafts mostly in the regions of gneiss. It 
seems that in some places small particles of pyrite or chalcopyrite 
in the rocks have been mistaken for gold and that in other places 
operators of the divining rod have been the means of exciting false 
hopes of hidden wealth. Some unscrupulous or incompetent as- 
sayers have reported high gold assays in rocks that were shown 
later to be absolutely barren. 

Within recent years two shafts, 150 and 180 feet in depth, were 
sunk in the Triassic conglomerate about 14 miles southwest of Lime- 
port in search of gold. It is reported that a vein of free-milling gold 
ore was found which contained about $30 in gold and $15 in silver 
to the ton but that the vein was soon exhausted. These statements, 
which seem to be questionable, have not been verified. The deposit 
was later worked for a time under lease by four men, who installed 
a system of sluicing, but the project was a failure. When visited 
some time after operations had ceased the only metallic substances 
observed in the rock on the dump were a few small particles of 
pyrite and chalcopyrite in the cementing material of the conglome- 
rate, 

About 12 years ago a shaft 103 feet in depth was sunk in gneiss 
about 1 mile southeast of Mountainville. The materials about the 
opening indicate that pegmatite carrying much coarse hornblende 
and some quartz, magnetite, pyrite, and feldspar was found. It was 
claimed that some valuable rare minerals were obtained, but careful 
examination has failed to detect their presence. 

Gold is also said to have been found in the Backenstoe graphite 
mine, 1 mile east of Vera Cruz station. This mine is described below 
(p. 160). 

Though very accurate assays of some of the pyrite so common in 
the rocks of the region may show traces of gold, it is extremely im- 
probable that gold in paying quantities occurs in the rocks of the 
Allentown quadrangle. 


CEMENT. 


The most valuable mineral product of the Allentown quadrangle 
at present is the cement rock, which extends in a narrow band from 
Coplay to Nazareth. The decline of the iron-mining industry in this 
section began just about the time the cement industry started, and 
at present the manufacure of cement is of greater importance than 





99 


all the other industries based on the mineral products of the region 
combined. The cement district of the Allentown quadrangle forms 
a part of the “Lehigh district,’ which has been gradually extended 
in both directions until now it includes cement plants in Berks, 
Lehigh, and Northampton counties, Pa., and Warren County, N. J. 
Ten companies are operating in the quadrangle, eight of which obtain 
practically all their rock within its borders. With few exceptions 
for many years the annual output of each company has shown an 
increase over that of the preceding year. 


Historical Sketch. 


As in other regions the manufacture of natural hydraulic cement 
preceded that of Portland cement. In New York the construction 
of the Erie Canal in 1818-19 led to the discovery of natural hydraulic 
cement, and in this region the digging of the canal of the Lehigh 
Coal & Navigation Co. accomplished the same result. Rock suitable 
for hydraulic cement was found just above Lehigh Gap, where Pal- 
merton is now, and also at Siegfried’s Bridge (now Siegfried). The 
rock at Lehigh Gap seemed to be preferable, and a cement mill was 
built there under the direction of the company’s engineers. This 
plant operated by Samuel Glace from 1826 to 1830 and furnished 
material for many of the canal locks. When the best cement rock 
near Lehigh Gap was exhausted for a time material was quarried 
about 6 miles east of, the gap and hauled to the plant. However, in 
1830 it was decided to abandon the mill and’ to erect a new one at 
Siegfried’s Bridge, where suitable rock was known to be obtainable. 
In a small pamphlet by William H. Glace, entitled “A narrative of 
hydraulic cement mined in the Lehigh Valley,” the following descrip- 
tion is given. 


Capt. Theodore H. Howell, residing at Siegfrieds, informed me that when he 
came there in 1837 there were four kilns erected and in operation. They were 
known as draw kilns, fire being placed in the eye at the bottom of the kilns, drawn 
at the bottom and hoisted up an incline plane or tramway and emptied into a hop- 
per, where the stones were crushed by machinery shaped like a corn crusher, then 
dropped down and ground by burr millstones, then placed in boxes or trays with 
handles, then transported in scows to points on canal where needed. The scows 
were drawn by mules with a] steersman on a platform on the rear of the. scow, 
having a large tiller, 15 feet long, ending in a large blade or paddle, which tiller 
was fastened on a socket at the balance point, and thus lifted with little exertion 
at will, and when in use was a powerful means to turn the boat in any direction 
wanted. At that time the capacity of this plant was ten barrels per day. 

The canal, from the place down to the Allentown dam, was through a farming 
community, and the loam and clay on the banks of the canal were vulnerable 
places for the muskrats, which were plentiful. They seemed to be busy constantly 
and would in a short time make a hole in the embankment, which if not attended 
to would empty the canal and stop transportation. 

The method to remedy this was an alarm given by the bank waitchman, the 
scow or cement boat sent for, which with the mules trotting, a man in front blowing 
a horn, giving them the right of way, the steersman on his platform at the rear, 
meanwhile the workingmen were emptying the trays (which had been covered with 
a tarpaulin), on the bottom of the boat, mixing it with gravel and sand,dipping up 


100 


water from the canal and making the concrete. As soon as the leak was reached 
a small coffer dam was built around it, water emptied and the conerete epplied, - 
stamped with wooden stampers in the break, the frame work removed as soon as 
grouting hardened. In those years Samuel Glace was supervisor of the cane] from 
Slate Dam to Allentown Dam, in addition to the cement work at Siegfrieds until 
1841. 

Natural hydraulic cement continued to be manufactured in the 
region, as shown ky the following quotation.” 

On the eastern side of the river, directly opposite the village [Whitehall, now 
Cementon], are the extensive Hydraulic Cement Works of E. Eckert & Co. These 
works have been in successful operation for aj number of years, and the cement 
(which is mined in the neighborhood) is said to be equal in every respect to the 
celebrated Rosendale cement. 


As early as 1867 David O. Saylor, who was at the head of the 
Coplay Cement Co., a natural hydraulic cement company at Coplay, 
began experimentation to try to improve the quality of the cement 
produced. In the preceding year Portland cement was brought to 
this country from England, where it had been manufactured since 
1825 and this fact seemed to act as a stimulus to cement manufact- 
urers in this country. By selecting the stone carefully Saylor finally 
succeeded about 1872 in making Portland cement, which was exhibited 
at the Centennial Exposition, where it received a “certificate of 
award.” 

The Coplay Cement Co. (now the Coplay Cement Manufacturing 
Co.) continued to make Portland cement, steadily improving its 
quality, and other plants were soon started in the same vicinity. 
For some years many difficulties were encountered and meanwhile 
the importations of Portland cement from England were gradually 
increasing. In time, however, the Portland cement of the Lehigh dis- 
trict acquired the reputation, which it still holds, of being the equal 
of any other Portland cement made, and cement importation practic- 
ally ceased. The situation in 1878 is described by Prime’ in his 
report of the geology of Lehigh and Northampton counties. 

Two companies, as mentioned in Report DD, have tried to utilize the hydraulic 
properties of this limestone in Northampton County, but neither of them have 
done much of anything in the last four or five years, and every time the quarries 
have been visited by members of the present geological survey they have been 
found standing unworked. These companies are “The Old Lehigh Cement Works” 
and “The Allen Cement Company.” 

It must not be supposed because these companies have been apparently unsuccess- 
ful that there is no future in the business of manufacturing hydraulic cement in 
this part of the State; on the contrary the success of the Coplay Cement Co. 
shows what perseverance under difficulties can and does accomplish. Of course 
the composition of some of the cement-stone beds is far more favorable to the 
manufacture of cement than that of others, but all may be more or less profitably 
utilized for careful intermixture. There is no reason why the manufacture of 
hydraulic and ‘Portland cements should not be slowly and surely extended, not 
only rendering this portion of the State free from foreign competitors, but actually 


rivaling these in many of the western markets on account of the excellence of the 
product and the cheapness of freights. 





57Henry, M. S., History of the Lehigh Valley, p. 302, 1860. 
58Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. D8, vol. 1, pp. 164-165, 1888, 


FOL 


For many years both natural and Portland cements were made 
in the district, in some places even by the same company, but at 
present little natural cement is produced. Only a few years ago 
a natural cement company whose works were at Kgypt, a few miles 
‘west of the borders of the Allentown quadrangle, ceased operations 
and dismantled its kilns. 

For a while the Lehigh district enjoyed a monopoly in the manu- 
facture of Portland cement, until it was discovered that an equally 
good product could be made from many different materials. Lehigh 
cement was shipped all over the country, and much of it was ex- 
ported. Though no other cement region occupies so favorable a po- 
sition with reference to accessibility to good cement rock and fuel 
and proximity to great industrial centers, yet on account of freight 
charges the market for the cement of the Lehigh district becomes 
smaller year by year, owing to the erection of cement plants in other 
sections of the country. Fortunately, however, the demand for Port- 
land cement has kept pace with the growth of cement manufactur- 
ing plants, so that this district continues to prosper regardless of 
increasing competition. The following table shows the prominent 
position which the Lehigh district holds. 


Portland cement produced in the Lehigh district and in the United States, 1890-1922, 
in barrels.' 


a 





























Percentage | Percentage 
of total | of total 
Output Total output | Output Total output 
Year of Lehigh | output of manutac- year of Lehigh | output of manufac- 
district United tured in | district United tured in 
States Lehigh States Lehigh 
district | district 
an 

= 0, Tak ei ee i as emer. LAE, 

“4 Ohba ee ae 201,000 335 ,500 GOLO7 1907" S225. - 24,417,686 48,785,390 | 50.0 
SOS o8 =e 248 ,500 454,813 O47} 190Sh ==. 20,200,887 | 51,072,612 39.6 
USO ns Pee ae o 280,840 547,440 OLS yi 100M. Ske: 24,246,706 64,991,431 | 37.3 
i hos hee 265,317 590 , 652: 44.9 | 1910 _____- 26,315,359 76,549,951 | 54.4 
TS04y ae 485 , 829 798,757 6038. 191 wes 25,972,108 | 78,528,637 BS oi 
1805 2 22--—| 634,276 990,324 64.0 | 1912 _____.| 24,762,088 | 82,438,096 30.0 
US 8 5 ace le 1,048,154 1,543,023 od a bos i 27,139,601 | 92,09'7,131 29.5 
nL.? ees 2,002,059 Oat LO: 74.8 | 1914, __.__- 24,614,983 | 88,230,170 27.9 
lle 2 ear 2,674,304 3,692,284 | ee aeey LOM 24,876,442 | 85,914,907 | 29.0 
cs a 4,110,132 5,652,266 | Ne Mn tol eye. 24,105,381 91,521,198 26.3 
TOO LS 6,153,629 8,482,020 : OP RO ie eee 24 ,423 ,50'7 92,814,202 26.3 
TOO ee Mt 8,595 , 340 12,711,225 Gites | LOTS eee 19,701,8°0 71,081 , 663 OHA 
102 ye == - 10,829,922 | 17,230,644 GeO (LQnG) a 22,747,956 } 80,777,935 28.3 
HOS) 5 12,324,922 | 22,342,973 iy Oe Nel OOO eee aes 25,417,804 | 100.023,245 | 25.4 - 
MO Uae eas oor 14,211,039 26,505, 881 tie NL Ook. seams 25,571,726? 98,842,049 | 25.9 
OOS A cee ae 17,368,687 | 35,246,812 49.3 | 1922 ______| 31,195,6177| 114,789,984 | WieD 
1906 _____- 22,784,613 | 46,463,424 49.0 | 1923 ______ 35,721,7512| 137,460,288 | 25.9 




















ee Oct Datocuite ; “New Ntatay and Maryland. 

In this region there have been. many improvements since the first 
successful manufacture of Portland cement. For a time the run of 
quarry was used, with the result that some companies which owned 
quarries in which the rock had practically the composition now looked 
upon as most desirable were able to produce a better product than 
other companies with less suitable rock. Also but few companies 


102 


were able to produce a uniform product on account of the variation 
in composition of the rock, even in the same quarry. Now, however, 
the chemist of each company sees that the proper mixtures are used, 
and the physical tests also serve as a check, so that the old hit or 
miss method has given place to exact scientific processes and the 
variations in the product are very slight. 

The changes in processes of manufacture have been equally great, 
and each year mechanical modifications are introduced which tend 
to increase the output and to lower the cost of production. Even 
now these improvements are being made so rapidly throughout the 
district that detailed descriptions of the mills might be out of date 
before they were published. The greatest improvements have been in 
the character of kilns by which the old upright kiln has given place 
to the modern rotary kiln that is now universally used throughout 
the region. 


Cement Materials. 


The Allentown quadrangle is well supplied with the necessary raw 
materials for the manufacture of Portland cement. These materials 
consist of a black argillaceous limestone, known as cement rock, and 
a low-magnesium, relatively pure limestone, known as cement lime- 
stone. The underlying limestones, of Beekmantown age, which are 
in most places too high in magnesia for use in Portland cement, 
locally contain beds that are serviceable. In a few plants it is 
necessary at times to add some clay or slate, either of which can 
be readily procured close at hand. Some other companies require a 
small amount of high calcium limestone which must be brought from 
other regions. 

The cement rock and cement limestone are of Ordovician age and 
in most places in the quadrangle can easily be distinguished. ‘The 
basal cement limestone consists of good limestone with some iuter- 
bedded shaly limestone strata toward the top; the upper cement rock 
consists mainly of thin-bedded argillaceous limestones that locally 
contain beds of pure limestone. On the accompanying map a line 
is drawn between these two limestones, yet it should be recognized 
that the division in some places is drawn somewhat arbitrarily, es- 
pecially near Lehigh River. 


Cement Rock. 


Distribution.—The black argillaceous limestone, or cement rock, 
extends across the quadrangle in a continuous band from Nazareth 
to Siegfried. From Siegfried to Howertown the band is approxi- 
mately 14 miles in width, but it narrows northeastward to less than 
one-eighth of a mile in the vicinity of Bath. Thence eastward it 
maintains a width of approximately three-quarters of a mile, except 


103 


at Nazareth, where it widens to 1 mile. The widening and narrow- 
ing of the band are due partly to differences in thickness but mainly 
to the variation in structure of the strata in different places. 


In most places in the quadrangle the northern boundary of the 
cement rock is accurately indicated by an abrupt change in topo- 
graphy, as the line of contact lies at the base of the steep slopes 
which mark the southern margin of the slate belt. This change in 
slope is due to the relative ease with which the cement rock is re- 
moved by weathering, mainly by solution, in comparison with the 
slate, which is much less soluble. 


In several places the southern boundary of the cement rock beit 
is also marked by a change in slope. The underlying cement lime- 
stone, which is more soluble than the cement rock, produces a more 
nearly level topography, and the change from one belt to the other 
is marked by a change in slope. The map (PI. II) in several places 
shows this contact line at the foot of a pronounced slope. 


The cement-rock belt continues beyond the borders of the quad- 
rangle but with less continuity. In the adjoining Slatington quad- 
rangle the belt is interrupted by faults or by areas where the lime- 
stone was never deposited. 


Character.—The cement rock is an argillaceous limestone that is 
intermediate both in composition and in stratigraphic position be- 
tween pure limestone and shale or slate. In color it suggests the 
overlying Ordovician slates, and in many places it shows marked 
slaty cleavage. A freshly broken piece is bluish black and shows 
glistening particles of sericite that are too fine to be individually 
distinguishable except as light is reflected by them. The unaltered 
rock breaks partly along cleavage planes and partly along bedding 
planes, producing hackly or in some specimens conchoidal surfaces 
that are unlike those of either the pure limestones beneath or the 
slates above. As the rock weathers, however, it separates into small 
cleavage fragments so similar to those that result from the decom- 
position and disintegration of slate that it is difficult to distinguish 
between soil derived from slate and that derived from cement. rock. 
Both soils are filled with thin fragments of light yellowish-gray 
rock the largest of which are 1 inch in length. 


In almost every quarry the rock shows the effect of great compres- 
sion, by which it has been shattered, thus permitting water carry- 
ing mineral matter in solution to precipitate quartz and calcite in 
the open fissures and irregular cavities. (See Pl. VI, A). In some 
places the vein matter is pure-white calcite, in other places white 
granular quartz, but more commonly it is a mixture of the two. The 


104 
ALLENTOWN ATLAS Plate VI. 





A. Cement rock in quarry of Bath Portland 
Cement Co., showing crumpling and 
numerous veins of caiciie and quartz. 





B. Limestone breccia in Old Hartman mine, Friedensville. 


105 


white veins in contrast with the black rock are very prominent in 
the working faces of most quarries. There is a rough parallelism of 
the veins, which tend to follow bedding planes, although they break 
across the beds in many places. Adjoining the veins smooth slicken- 
sided surfaces that are coated with a soft black carbonaceous sub- 
stance resembling graphite are very common. 

Small cubes of pyrite are frequently noticed near the veins and 
locally in the rock where the vein material is absent. Purple and 
green fluorite have also been found in the vein material in a few 
localities. 

Chemical composition—The chemical composition of the cement 
rock changes from bed to bed or even in the same bed within a single 
quarry opening. In some quarries the average rock contains almost 
exactly the right proportions of the materials required for the best 
gerade of Portland cement. Several plants in the district for months 
at a time do not find it necessary to add either pure limestone or 
clay. In most quarries the rock varies in different parts so that 
tracks must be run to several places and the requisite mixture ob- 
tained by the proper combination of the different kinds of rock. In 
other quarries, however, the average rock runs too low in calcium 
carbonate, so that some high-grade limestone must invariably be 
added. Some of the plants are fortunate enough to have quarries 
in the underlying cement limestone, but others must bring limestone 
from a distance. Much limestone from Annville, Lebanon County, 
Pa., is used in the district. In a few quarries the average rock runs 
too high in calcium carbonate, so that some other material must at 
times be added. For this purpose the local residual limestone and 
glacial clays are utilized. 

With few exceptions the basal beds of cement rock are higher in 
lime than the upper strata. Accordingly a plant whose quarry is 
located near the northern margin of the belt and which works the 
upper beds will need to add high-grade limestone to the cement rock, 
whereas a plant which has a quarry near the southern margin of 
the belt and which works the basal beds may need to add some clay 
at times. The Penn Allen and Dexter companies show this relation 
very well, for the Penn Allen Co. finds it necessary to add limestones 
brought from other points and the Dexter Co. occasionally must add 
some clay. | 

In general the cement rock toward the western part of the quad- 
rangle runs too low in calcium carbonate, and the plants located 
there must buy limestone. The average rock in the central and east- 
ern parts of the belt has almost the desired composition for Port- 
land cement, but some of it requires a small admixture of clay, as 
noted in the descriptions of the individual plants. 


106 


The change in composition of the cement rock in depth is well 
shown in the following series of analyses of rock from a 350-foot 
boring made by the Atlas Portland Cement Co. in its quarry at 
Northampton. The last 40 feet penetrated was evidently the cement 
limestone, which lies beneath the cement rock, and the other speci- 
mens that are high in lime came from layers of pure limestone 
which are interbedded with the argillaceous limestone (cement rock). 


Analyses of cement rock in 350-foot boring in quarry of Atlas Portland Cement 
Oo., Northampton, Pa. 






























































Date ; Feo0s + 
received Depth Side Als03 CaCos MgC0s | Total 
1908 Feet 
" O05; 6 oa ee ee ee ed en eee | Pe Xgl aia leeraens eaeceee 64/61 ||. 
B10: UL ees ae eee oe ee fe Jot See i NOES 2 65 (ASE ae 
LO — Wite. . 2 ee es oe en ee See ov el, ae eee ee Ae 65. eee See ee 
15=— (20... $228k ne de ee PE ee Bl eee eee eee 65:29 | 222 eee 
DQ Do RN eh ET el A ae 1s Med ooeth es |e a 63.0) |= 
20= BOG. oe See Le ES ea ee) ee as ee eet | eee Cee 62.07 |. ae 
BO BB: 22 Ee he ee oy OE NE ea is ee ie ee | ee Re 62.00 de 2 eet 
85-40 ° Losseeh ae 5 ee 8 Se See ee Sule iy vee, Wg G1. 17) | eee 
40-45 «22 Be ee ee ee Se rr 61.28 |. ee 
45-60 Golse Os oe a Se 2 ee Sy ee ee ae 64:01 | 22 
June '23'| “Average Ot Orst ‘O07 feet, 2-.- ee | co bene Wa 7.88 63.27 5.03 98.20 | 
1908 Feet 
5O~ 65 cob Or ee Pee SRE Cal es eee ee ee 63.57 ||. eee 
5G~ 60. ke Oe oe sd ee oe ee ee ae gen SB ae 64.01. | eee 
60= 66 bo oes oo 2 ae PS UE Se es oe Sede eee 56.56: |. eee 
65-70 June oe ee ig ee eee Se 50.52 | nin fo 
RO Ti A eR ee ee te ec as Se ee 67.02 i eee niu 
TB BO nc es ek Se ies a eee ner cg ee 60226 We ae 
BO~ Be Set oe ees A a ed) ek ae 69.19.) Se 
SB— 90 nn eee ge oe a TE ae ee OOS See ee 
90-106 css ELE LE Ds Bo et i a) ee ee ee ee 67 OO Ae 2 eae 
05-100. 2s ae fo tee ee ee ee ee ee 66:25. ( <peseeee 
June 23 | Average of 50 to 100 feet _..____-_-_- 21.42 8.26 64.42 4.45 98.55 
TOO=1 Obs: bS eae A a ee ee oe eer ee epee | A AL 2 68: 04° |. See 
1LOB=1L O00 eee ee ee ee 2 ee eee ee Ok ia ie 67. 62: |e 
OST LE 6 eee es Ee eee ek Dey te ee ee HO Enh desl 65.62 32 eee 
ye NS bs Pie Oe. Aas pe te ee OR oh Laer Vie Seer eee ne 66). G4: (Se aes 
IAL ES bus Pee eae ed EAR, cS ES OS ee Ey Sees ees eee Oe 67-10 | eee 
DL ODeA 1 SOs beg Jot Sh San a raed, Ue ieng era ry et et ly 64: 80: ||: ee 
TSORT Rb ets Se eS 0 ae ak Se Ree meal EE Se Sh ee et ot Pa | 66.50: | sere 
Mpa Op Pee, Se Set ee oe Legare Meee SU ae a! ipece ee 72. Op 
iti [ee eae ee To) a lee ee ee |2--=---+--|-2 cee 65.69 |. 2 Soe 
Wie) B: 53 05,6 NOM Sa aims ek ED) Po a Peete) SSS oe 63.49) | 32 See 
June 24 {| Average of 100 to 150 feet __--_____- | 19.36 7.90 | . 66.80 4.33 98.39 
| ae 
THOS DO pee eee ie ott Re Sa St (ht ies SS Spain ie, Se JE gs is 06:16; -2eee eee 
| AE ea GUM te Srey GR i ee rea bey. | ee gene eo 64507 eres 
1 "1 OO 1G et Se oo BS I EP oD ee ee en ee 66. Stas 
T6570 eee tae See | a Oe 2 ae ca 64. GSR ae 
170-17 ia Ree! See e bh eo Te eee Als Oe eee ere 65.91 kee ee 
UTD ALSO ie see is ot US ee pe ee OD deen ee sce 
190-196 ae eek: Ries Pope ete ok Te |, OQ. 10Mem es oJ . 
LBH—LO0) Eee eS es Re ee a ee | 63-98 WE 
| 190196 n eee cud eet gt al ae a Ob lb: tt Aaa 
| "1964200 oS Albee eee ee oe Ee 2 ee ee ed 60.28 21 ee 
| | emer SS | | Ss hr 
June 24 | Average of 150 to 200 feet __--___-_- 17.22 8.02 67.44 — 4.95 97.63 

















Analyses of cement roc 

















107 












































k in 350-foot boring in quarry of Atlas Portland Cement 
Co., Northampton, Pa— Continued. 






























































Date Fe203+ 
received Depth Side Alz03 CaC0s MgC0s | Total 
ANUS SY hk see She AN Pe ABE SE Mees BOR) Mee pe Sons oe os NOR PANES 5% | oy eke Bales 
Bane Pd I ab” thc be. Be a Se ee) Fm Be Se ee ROR Ce fon MRE Cem G3. 4s eee Se Shee 
CAN MGATSY 55 Sunil ental 6 atc MEO ASRS Mics «La ee | See bg | SME aS opie Ge ree ony mee 
een acres ees cee eee ea eae a Ae ee HEE ee asi ee Al Us| Po tae os 8 
Par ene eee ee ke ae oe ee Ms Sd Thee ee I ee eet Coe teal oe oe 
Re ee en a eR ee Tee SE a Oe Ue eae PATO oe eee 
Cie SB ae pe 2 LT AE 2, Sk Se Shalt er gee PME BR Cet Ly are Nhe ino: iha| oe ae ee eS 
Spit ANG Se EE i Ely aes Me Rt Ae dry Savs. |. yo On OAS? anh Wer Sehes EL At See etd 
OA aD NR Se IRR TCE SIR RAP is A Mc 1 a ae a 
CALPE gate 45 TT Ce ae SLs ae, A Ae ne a, SNe ea 2 RES et on Yee | SAS Eee 
June 24 | Average of 200 to 250 feet _________- 16.28 7.00 71.18 | 4.85 99.31 
a 
° Ch hoy eRe Te ROE Ee Slag let le eae poke ip LM, Cee ane ae Sa RRR Hic A ioe dS 
TT VS eR ee ae TU aks CMC RaD ED Sele! Monee etek rae? ale oe el 
Reb SN Nad Sul 3 et ie a A OS SESS pe Med ie ee wee ie pee ee Re lO) Sl eee es ee 
ONE inh) ee IR Des Se Se EE ey RF OE dete) I (ae ee | ee Oe Ola eee ees eee 
eee TOMeeaes oe ees a SL. See LN eee (8 2) ll) Ce fore Um k Beek sue 
“TI AIe Diba ah igi, SE anes eae eee LAE ot Sit eee are | Pemeces age Wer TL SOD pie eee eke ee 
SL EE PETS RE alo egal IR a a Ci heed 
OES StS Cee SE ai Oe le EE RT ae EG IP ease 
ILS ASE a «COUN ees ee ae, pe IAS, ae eee GL ear Ho eb Uh ll bm pe Sap 
Seo Sa) | SR Pee Cs ee ies ae ee ELSES EY tae eee eee eee He, OO aaah ee ake 
June 29 | Average of 250 to 300 feet ___._.--_- 1ST 24 (hep 74.78 4.18 99.52 
| 
1908 Feet 
ENE Wl a ate eee BA a aig 5 Se ee | oe a eee ae ERS ie NS ean 
Pacer gt Ne ee ee ee Nerf etree) Ae A ys ey pe ee NS ee a ho Bi leps ds 
OU TLS, pe PLR het eat tS ae Sane 1 ee Lae ee See Ie epee en SiS Alsi. ees ee 
One tee ton oe Ae ee ee Oe Ie. ee ae Iie 85). 82 eee fee 
ee ena eee ae ee ee ee al eee ye) al Pee SE 
oP Ue a ee ea Pee Se = Ak eth eng oo e AS oe SS TO DG ee Soa 
oti GGA jokes 4 yA SASS Fee a ee ee. a) Cee aes eee Te cA Neen See ee 
Pere) One ie bert. Beet. ee ee Se ow es 2 OIA Ee ole TS AGL eee eee ee 
Fest ech ee ee 4 ee yay Whee ol ee ey oa et Sy LO) ee vA 
rer OS leet eee Ae A SS ey Pe a eae (SOG Gk ees 
July 20} Average of 300-350 feet __...1._.___-. 11.08 5.88 78.58 3.58 99.07 
Analyses of cement rock from Allentown quadrangle, Pa. 
a SSE 2 ae ee Se ie —— 
ib 2, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 aa 12 
Rito ef 16.29 | 16.28 | 11.86 | 14.78 | 13.28 | 11.10 | 18.15 15d e240 Lee 1640 14.5 
Fate+ Alo03 152. 8.67 6.86 7'.00 6.68 5.66 8.82 7.56 5.50 6.52 7.20 7 89 
Ga Gate 2 79 15 | 69.64 | 74.86 | 71.37 | 74.20 | 77.60 | 68.14 | 71.42 | 75.78 | 75.80 | 66.18 72.67 
Me Gis a 4.35 4.64 4.64 4.45 4,20 Li 3.88 4.68 4.78 5.32 Teor 3.89 


—_— 
Se ee ee oe ree 


ro 
_ 


BUR 


Bonneville quarry, 





Lawrence Portland Cement Co. 





Quarry No. 3, east of Hokendauqua Creek, Lawrence Portland Cement Co. 
Quarry No. 3, near Howertown, Atlas Portland Cement Co, 
Quarry of Bath Portland Cement Co., Portland. 


Quarry of Bath Portland Cement Co. 


Quarry of Dexter Portland Cement Co. 
Quarry of Dexter Portland Cement Co. 
Quarry of Phoenix Portland Cement Co. 
Quarry of Phoenix Portland Cement Co. 


Quarry of Nazareth Cement Co. 
Quarry of Nazareth Cement Co. 
Quarry of Penn Allen Cement Co. 


These analyses should not be regarded as necessarily character- 
istic of the particular quarries where the sampies were taken ‘but 


are fairly typical of the average cement rock of the district. 


it 


108 


would no doubt be possible to obtain similar series of analyses from 
a single quarry. In the records of the cement companies there are 
a few analyses in which the calcium carbonate is less than 60 per 
cent and others in which it exceeds 85 per cent, but these are not 
typical. | 

In addition to the substances given in the above analyses small 
quantities of TiO,, FeO, MnO, P,O,, SrO, CaS, KO, and Na,O have 
been found in the cement rock of the region. The effect of these 
upon the quality of the cement is problematic. Ullmann and Boyer’’ 
give a series of determinations of TiO, in specimens of cement rock 
from this region. They range from 0.14 to 0.24 per cent. 

Meade® gives a complete analysis, made by himself, of a sample 
of cement rock from the quarry of the Dexter Portland Cement Co, 
that has practically the correct composition for burning. It is as 
follows: 


Complete analysis of cement rock from quarry of Dexter Portland Cement Co. 








SiQa gee ea St arene ts 8.44.) KeO eae eee 72 
RANG) Vogl i ae We SS ed eM 0.23 POs 2.3) Aa ee 22 
PCL fey abe ie AOD te 4.56. |} S sine 2 6 es See 33 
en (sy 2 ae oe ene Ss .D6 Qe yea) ea ee .75 
ge @ lee vee eS te 2 AOL Baw Ee .88 OCOss 2s eee ee 82:.94 
VET) ite pee aes ee ee os tree 06 "| HO above sib: Gee 1.55 
Ca re. 2. ee ee ee 41.84 

VEO) oe Re Nr 1.94 100.32 
BN ie Oe eae RAR SE Re ee cee 











Fossils —The writer has made careful search for fossils in the 
cement rock of the region but has found only a single specimen 
in the typical black argillaceous limestone. This specimen is a 
fairly well preserved graptolite and was found in the old quarry 
of the Coplay Cement Manufacturing Co. The carbonaceous matter 
in the rock, which gives it a dark color, may perhaps have been de- 
rived from the remains of graptolites that disintegrated during the 
metamorphism of the rock. 

The layers of crystalline limestone that are locally interbedded 
with the true cement rock contain abundant fossils, most of which, 
however, are fragmentary. They can scarcely be recognized except 
on weathered surfaces. At the large quarry of the Atlas Portland 
Cement Co. and also the one near Howertown many crinoid stems, 
bryozoa, and brachiopods have been found. 

Structure—In many quarries it is difficult to determine the 
bedding planes unless an interbedded pure limestone stratum can 
be found. Where the pure limestone beds are absent the quartz 
and calcite veins, which in general are present along the bedding 
planes, are useful in determining the structure. Almost invariably 


59Ullmann, H. M., and Boyer, J. W., The determination of titanium in argillaceous 
limestones (cement rock): Chem. Eng., vol. 10, pp. 163- 165, 1909. 
60Meade, R. K., Portland cement, 2d ed., p. 50, Haston Pa., 1911, 














109 


the cement-rock strata are greatly crumpled and yet have low angles 
of dip. The normal direction of dip is toward the northwest, be- 
neath the Martinsburg slates which constitute the slate hills, but 
in many quarries some beds dip in other directions. 

When the rocks of the region were subjected to the great dynamic 
forces that formed the Appalachian ridges the cement-rock strata 
were so weak that they yielded by minor folding and faulting, 
so that the different layers locally became thickened but were not 
tilted at high angles. The cement rock in very few places dips 
more than 45° and in most places much less, whereas in the adjoin- 
ing limestone belt vertical or even overturned beds are not un- 
common, 

Thickness——The crumpled character of the cement rock, the ab- 
sence of any beds that are sufficiently distinct to be recognized in 
different openings, and the lack of any continuous or approximately 
continuous section across the belt render the exact determination of 
the thickness of the cement rock of the region impossible. The local 
thickening of the beds due to compression also needs to be taken 
into account in any estimates of thickness. 

In the 350-foot boring of the Atlas Portland Cement Co. described 
above (p. 106) the upper 310 feet seems to be cement reck and the 
last 40 feet to be the underlying cement limestone. The rocks here, 
although somewhat crumpled, were so nearly flat that 300 feet of 
cement strata can be safely assumed. As the boring was in the 
bottom of the quarry, below somewhat more than 100 feet of cement 
rock, the total thickness in that place must be about 400 feet, which 
is believed to be the maximum thickness within the quadrangle. 
From Weaversville to Nazareth the thickness scarcely exceeds 200 
feet, and in the vicinity of Bath it may be less. 

The decided difference in the thickness of the cement rock in dif- 
ferent places may be due in part to local thickening as the rock 
‘yielded under the compression that resulted from widespread dy- 
namic disturbances at the close of the Ordovician and Carboniferous 
periods, but it is due mainly to the deposition of a greater thickness 
of muddy calcareous beds in the region of Lehigh River than farther 
east. 

Relations —The cement rock rests conformably upon the underly- 
ing cement limestone. In some places the basal beds of the cement 
rock seem to dovetail into the upper beds of the underlying purer 
limestone, as in the quarries of the Pennsylvania Cement Co. east 
of Bath. | 

The cement rock is conformably overlain by the shales and slates 
of the Martinsburg formation. 

In many places in the quadrangle glacial clays that contain many 
cobbles and boulders overlie the cement rock. In some places this 


110 


overlying debris, which must be removed before the rock is blasted 
down, is as much as 15 feet in thickness and fills old pockets of 
solution in the ancient land surface, although the average thickness 
of this cover is probably less than 5 feet. 


Cement Limestone. 


Distribution.—A series of limestone strata high in calcium carbo- 
nate and low in magnesium carbonate extends across the quadrangle 
in a narrow band which has a width of an eighth to a quarter of a 
mile except southeast of Nazareth, where it widens to three-quarters 
of a mile. The area occupied by these strata adjoins on the south 
the area occupied by cement rock that has just been described. These 
beds are so easily accessible to the cement plants that they have been 
extensively quarried by the cement companies and are therefore called 
cement limestones. The Bath, Pennsylvania, Dexter, and Phoenix 
cement companies have quarries in this belt from which they obtain 
rock to mix with the cement rock when needed. The Nazareth Cement 
Co. has opened its quarry on the contact of the two kinds of rocks, 
so that the cement limestone occupies the southern part of the quarry 
and the cement rock the northern part. 

A small area of cement limestone also lies about half a mile 
northwest of Lanark in the Saucon Valley, where it has been faulted 
down and hence preserved from erosion, which has removed all the 
cement rock that at one time occupied the intervening space between 
this region and the continuous band about 9 miles to the north- 
west. 

Character.—The typical cement limestone of the region is a light 
to dark gray, coarsely crystalline limestone, which when broken 
shows many lustrous cleavage surfaces of dark calcite. Less common 
are beds of fine-grained, dark-colored limestone which differs but 
little in appearance from the underlying dolomitic limestone. 

The beds are massive as a rule and in many places show numerons 
joint planes, some of which are greatly enlarged by solution. These 
joint planes are commonly filled with residual or glacial clay. One 
quarry which was otherwise good was abandoned on account of the 
1umerous clay seams or pockets, and in several places they have 
considerably increased the cost of quarrying because the clay had 
io be removed before the rock could be blasted. 

Chemical composition.—Normally the cement limestone runs high 
in calcium carbonate and low in magnesium carbonate but like the 
cement rock differs greatly in composition from place to place. The 
analyses given below are typical of the rock. In some quarries much 
of the rock on analysis shows from 90 to 95 per cent calcium earbo- 
nate. Also some quarries contain a few beds that contain as much 
as 12 per cent magnesium carbonate, which: is so high that this rock 
must be sorted out and discarded. 


; 


Pa 


111 


Analyses of cement limestones. 

















1 2 3 4 
—_—— —<—$—$—__—. —— its a. | i _— EEE ees 
a Se eee ae 4.68 | 7.03 11.90 5.82 
SSE ee ee a ee 1.88 | 2.60 3.06 2.96 
eo enkg goatee ta Be ee ee 89.95 | 87.00 | 77.50 86.20 
OC ee 0 Se ee EL) SPM 2.54 6.90 4.64 





1. Limestone quarry of Dexter Portland Cement Co. 
2. South side of quarry of Nazareth Cement Co. 

3. Quarry of Nazareth Cement Co. one-fourth mild south of Christian Springs Hotel. 
4. Limestone quarry of Bath Portland Cement Co. 


Fossils —The cement limestones contain numerous fossil remains, 
most of which are fragmentary and scarcely determinable. Except 
on the weathered surfaces of the rocks they are not conspicuous. 
They are of the same character as those contained in the limestone 
layers that are interbedded with the argillaceous cement rock pre- 
viously described (p. 103). Fragments of small crinoid stems are 
most abundant, but locally bryozoans are very common. “The 
bryozoans belong to several different species, but the branching and 
headlike colonies are most abundant. Poorly preserved brachiopods 
are also occasionally found. 

Structure—The massive beds of the cement limestone have not 
crumpled like the thin beds of the cement rock, and steeply dipping 
and overturned folds are present. In the south side of the quarry 
of the Coplay Cement Manufacturing Co. on the west bank of Lehigh 
River at the extreme margin of the quadrangle there is an overturned 
synclinal fold. The syncline is overturned to the north, so that the 
cement limestone both overlies and underlies a mass of cement rock 
and all the beds dipsto the southeast. In the quarry of the Nazareth 
Cement Co. the cement limestone strikes N. 55° W. and dips 42° NE. 

Elsewhere in the region the cement limestone dips gently to the 
north or northwest at low angles and disappears beneath the cement 
rock. 

Thickness.—The thickness of the cement limestone ranges from 100 
to almost 200 feet. The greatest thickness is near Nazareth, where 
it can be determined with a fair degree of accuracy. At that place 
it is approximately 200 feet. In the vicinity of Bath it scarcely 
exceeds 100 feet, although the exact thickness can not be determined. 

Relations—The cement limestone grades into the overlying argilla- 
ceous limestone or cement rock through an intermediate band of in- 
terbedded relatively pure limestone and impure argillaceous lime- 
stone. For this reason the two kinds of rocks, although lithologically 
dissimilar, are regarded as constituting a single geologic formation. 

At the base the cement rock is in contact with the magnesian 
limestone. In this region the two formations are approximately con- 
formable, although to the east, in New Jersey, there is a marked 
erosional unconformity between them in many places. 


112 


‘Glacial clay that contains included cobbles and boulders and that 
is of variable thickness rests upon the cement limestone in the belt 
shown on the map and interferes with the determination of the exact 
formation lines. 


Other Materials for Making Cement. 


.Limestones.—Although most of the limestones that lie between 
ithe belt of .cement limestones described above and the Cambrian 
sandstones and quartzites are prevailingly high in magnesia and 
‘hence unfit for Portland cement, there are a few beds in which the 
‘content of magnesium carbonate is well within the specified limits. 
These beds have been used in several places throughout the quad- 
rangle. 

Along the Central Railroad of New Jersey a quarter of a mile 
north of Catasauqua the Lawrence Portland Cement Co. operated 
a limestone quarry for many years. The material which was low in 
magnesium carbonate was shipped to the cement plant at Siegfried 
and that which contained too much magnesium for cement was sold 
to the Crane Iron Co. for flux. At times the company wag able to 
use 75 per cent of the output for cement, but at other times scarcely 
25 per cent. In most places the content of magnesium carbonate was 
fairly uniform in each bed of rock, but certain strata were suitable 
for cement in parts of the quarry but changed in composition suf- 
ficiently to be undesirable in other parts. Under the guidance of 
the chemist the quarrymen learned to detect the difference in ap- 
pearance of the rocks low and high in magnesium carbonate, so that 
their separation was easy. Naturally steam shovels could not be 
used, as the different kinds of rock were thrown down together in 
blasting. The following analyses of samples taken at approximately 
equal distances from the northwest corner and going in turn along 
the north, east, and south faces were furnished by .the Lawrence 
Portland Cement Co. 


Analyses of limestones in quarry one-fourth nile north of Catasauqua. 


ee 
a 
























































1 2 3 4 5 By sl 437 8 9 1} 1y 
Si0g 00. aes 9.02 | 7.82 | 12.91 | 12.38 | 12.81 | 7.43 | 13.90] 5.56] 1.94] 5.18) 5.70 
Al2O's + Fe2Os --.| 3.95| 2.14 | 4.95] 5.09| 5.41 | 2.63] 4.76| 1.87] 1.92] 3.05 | 2.85 
OuO0s V2 ee 82.12 | 85.50 | 79.65 | 79.03 | 75.50 | 85.32 | 76.94 | 87.23 | 92.57 | 88.30 | 85.63 
Metis a nee 431) 3.44 | 2.98 | 3.85] 6.07 | 4.07 | 4.73] 4.53) 5.10] 3.13] 6.04 





Along the Lehigh & New England Railroad a short distance north 
of Hanoverville the Lily White Cement Co. started to build a cement 
plant several years ago. Financial difficulties interfered with the 
completion of the buildings but the rock which the company pro- 
posed to use is now being quarried by the Industrial Limestone Co. 


118 


‘Some of the product is sold to the cement companies of the region. 
The Penn Allen Co. has bought large quantities of the rock to mix 
with its cement rock, which is deficient in calcium carbonate. 

The quarry is opened at a point where a considerable thickness of 
high-grade limestones low in magnesium occur interbedded with dolo- 
mitic strata. Some of the beds are of such composition as to sug- 
gest the cement limestones and furnish excellent material for cement 
but in one part of the quarry the rock contains far too much mag- 
nesium for Portland cement and must be used for other purposes. 
The following analyses are furnished by the company: 


Analyses of limestone from quarry of the Industrial Limestone Co. 


3 2 3 
SiO ger eae oe ese we eee Sane ee 2.26 as 0.54 
GTA PNR A) OE ie iene Sg pete on, Mae eee 74 3 2 
Op OO cere i eee 94.37 92.70 96'.50 
iS OO) aie eee oe ee ee 2.24 4.15 1.76 


Analysis 1 was made by the Penn Allen Portland Cement Co. and analyses 2 and 3 by F. 
F, Hintze, of Lehigh University. 

A quarry was opened in the small area of pre-Cambrian crystalline 
limestones along the right bank of Monocacy Creek just west of 
Pine Top. The quarry was operated by the Monocacy Stone Co. 
but is now closed. Some of the rock was sold to the cement com- 
panies of the region, and doubtless the entire output could readily 
be disposed of in this way. 

The rock is similar in character and of approximately the same 
age as the famous Franklin limestone of New Jersey that is so ex- 
tensively quarried in the vicinity of Franklin Furnace and McAfee. 
The following analyses furnished by the Monocacy Stone Co. show 
the general character of the rock. Sample No. 1 was of medium 
grain and dark color; sample No. 2 was a coarsely crystalline white 
rock. 


Analyses of crystalline limestone quarried by Monocacy Stone Co. 





1 2 
is OO ge ee a ee er en oe ee ea 94.74 93.46 
INS OO ig uh Min a Se eC oS ee Soe a ane ot ee 1.96 1.75 
BATS) ee ba he a eae ee et ee ee piece 69 
SUC Oy ee eye ie eg ee ie lee 2.08 2.78 
Paes Wiles eh ag Pe ee 37 55 

99 . 36) 99.23 
CaO ere Ss ee a ee ee 53.11 52.39 
MEO) (oe cen ae ae ae fa Oe 94 84 
PCr ee ee a ees ee Se oe -26 39 


Clay—Some of the cement plants near Nazareth are compelled 
to use a small amount of clay with the cement rock to make the 
proper mixture for Portland cement. As a rule they use the local 
clay which overlies the cement rock and represents the residuum 
of insoluble materials left when the soluble portions of the rock 
were removed in solution. Some of it has been transported and 


SB 


114 


deposited by the waters from the melting of the ice sheet which 
once invaded the region. The glacial clays contain a few cobbles 
and boulders. 

At one time the Nazareth Cement Co. operated a small clay pit 
near the mill, but in most places the thin deposit of clay that over- 
lies the cement rock is more than sufficient for the needs of the 
plants. The Nazareth Cement Co. furnishes the following partial 
analyses of the local clays used: 


Analyses of local clays used by Nazareth Cement Co. in manufacture of cement. 


1 2 
SiOs Geet 22k Sr ee a 7a Nae eee 8 63.10 20.10 
AleO's SU MeoO's jac20) ee eee Eka ee eee 20.62 20.04 
Oa) Neti tS te SO ee, ee eee ee ee AG 30 
MeO) poe cane, pee aw ame Dee a 2.70 1.95 


Materials from Other Regions Used by Local Cement Companies. 


Several companies operating in this region that are compelled to 
buy limestone to mix with their cement rock bring it from regions 
some distance beyond the borders of the quadrangle. The lime- 
stones quarried near Annville, Lebanon County, Pa., are used in 
several plants and some Franklin limestones from New Jersey 
is also. shipped in. The Atlas Portland Cement Co. uses the Frank-- 
lin limestone in the manufacture of white cement. To mix with it 
the company also ships in white clay, mostly from Saylorsburg, 
Monroe County, Pa. Most of the gypsum which is added to the 
clinker before grinding comes from western New York. 


Analyses of Franklin limestone and limestone from Annville. 


1 2 3 4 
OsnCOs <5 2a ea eee 97.11 96.67 96.60 94.29 
MerOOss J... ae eee 1.12 1.34 3D 3.14 
SiOo t= Se ae eee mies 36) 46) 
AleOg te: 4a eee 45+ leit 36} 28 
Bess a nt he eee .45) .36) 


. Limestone from Annville, R. K. Meade, analyst. 

. Average of 9 samples of limestone from Annville analyzed by Atlas Cement Co. 

. Franklin limestone, R. K. Meade, analyst. 

. Average of 19 samples of Franklin limestone analyzed by Atlas Portland Cement Co. 


BwnNr 


Cement Plants. 


Atlas Portland Cement’ Co.—The Atlas Portland Cement Co. is 
the largest producer in the district. The company began opera- 
tions on the west side of Lehigh River about 1 mile northwest of 
Coplay, where the Lehigh Hydraulic Cement Works were first op- 
erated in 1872. Later the company erected a mill on Hokendauqua 
Creek, where the Allen Cement Co. began manufacturing cement in 
1872. 3 


115 


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“O/-) JUsWA,) puBLLOg SLIVyV JO JUL 


PLE. 


OWL 





“OF JUIUIOA-) puBTLOg 


SULT 


jo A1rVngy) 


‘IITA 981d 





Lue 


The plant on the west side of the river has been idle for several 
years, but the plant along Hokendauqua Creek at Northampton 
has been enlarged until now it consists of 3 units each of which 
has a capacity of 10,000 barrels a day. If necessary each unit might 
produce as much as 12,000 barrels daily. This company furnished 
all the cement used in the construction of the locks and fortifications 
of the Panama Canal. The new mill, No. 4, has the largest rotary 
kiln used in the district. It is 220 feet long and 10 feet in diameter 
and has a capacity of 2,500 barrels a day The storage plant of the 
same mill has a capacity of 500,000 barrels. 

The company has three large quarries on the east side of the river 
and one on the west side a short distance beyond the borders of the 
Allentown quadrangle. Quarry No. 1, the largest quarry in the 
district, extends for about 4,000 feet in a north-south direction and 
is approximately 2,000 feet wide. The working face for several 
years has been from 80 to 100 feet in height over most of the quarry, 
but at the beginning of operations it was considerably less. (See PIs. 
VII and VIII). The rock quarried here is an argillaceous limestone 
in gently folded beds overlain by a thin deposit of glacial clay of 
uneven thickness. The average rock in the quarry is too low in 
calcium so that limestone must be added. 

Quarry No. 2, located southeast of Quarry No. 1, directly east of 
the office, is much smaller. It has not been used for several years on 
account of the numerous clay seams in the rock. 

Quarry No. 3, near Howertown, is the quarry most recently opened. 
The strata dip on the average 17° NW, and strike N. 80° E. The 
quarry measures about 1,000 by 500 feet in area and has a working 
face of 80 feet. The rock in this quarry runs fairly high in cal- 
cium carbonate, much of it above 75 per cent, although the average 
is said to be approximately 72 per cent. Numerous limestone 
layers are interbedded with the cement rock, and these on weathered 
surfaces show many fossil remains of crinoid stems, Bryozoa, and 
brachiopods. 


Bath Portland Cement Co.—The plant of the Bath Portland 
Cement Co. 144 miles southwest of Bath has a daily capacity of 
3,000 barrels of cement. (See Pl. IX). The buildings are almost 
on the contact of the cement rock and the cement limestone; and 
the cement limestone quarry is on one side and the cement rock 
quarry on the other. Sometimes for several months the material 
quarried in the cement-rock quarry is of such a composition that 
it can be used alone, but at other times it is necessary to add con- 
siderable limestone from the other quarry. By using the two quar- 
ries it is always possible to obtain the proper mixture for Portland 
cement. The amount of calcium carbonate in the cement rock ranges 


‘wd ‘Weg “og queue) puvpog yg Jo Jue[q “XT Id 





119 


from 69 to 77 per cent and in the limestone from 76 to 95 per cent. 
The amount of magnesium carbonate in the cement rock averages 
somewhat more than 4 per cent, and in the limestone it runs from 
2 to ¢ per cent. 

The cement-rock quarry is about 450 by 400 feet in diameter and 
has a working face about 70 feet in height. The rock dips northwest 
at different angles in different parts of the quarry but the average 
dip is approximately 20°. The beds are greatly crumpled, especially 
in the south part of the quarry, where much calcite and quartz vein 
material is present. 

In the limestone quarry which is about 400 by 200 feet in area 
and 55 feet in depth, the strata dip on the average 19° NW, and 
strike N. 38° E. 

The water for the plant is obtained from several wells, that ranve 
trom 200 to 250 feet in depth and furnish from 100 to 200 gallors 
a minute. 


Coplay Cement Manufacturing Co.—The Coplay Cement Manu- 
facturing Co. is the successor of the Coplay Cement Co. which 
produced the first Portland cement made in the district. The 
first mill and kilns were’ erected in the Allentown quadrangle 
a short distance above Coplay, but this mill is now abandoned; 
and the new mill and the quarries are in the adjoining Slatington 
quadrangle. This plant is of great historic interest. The manu- 
facturing methods employed are of especial interest, as no other 
plant in the region exhibits so well the evolution of cement-making 
machinery and methods. The upright kilns, although now aban- 
doned, are still in good condition. (See Pa. XI). 

The old quarry, not in use, is partly in the Allentown but mainly 
in the Slatington quadrangle. A beautiful example of an _ over- 
turned fold, which involved both the cement rock and the underly- 
ing cement limestone, is well shown in the south side of the quarry. 

Dexter Portland Cement Co—rThe plant and quarries of the 
Dexter Portland Cement Co. are 1 mile southwest of Nazareth. 
The main quarry of the company is in cement rock northwest of 
the mill, and there is a small limestone quarry on the south side of the 
buildings. 

The rock of the main quarry in the upper part of the opening 
is slightly deficient in calcium carbonate, and where much of it is 
used a small amount of limestone must be added. Generally, how- 
ever, the run of quarry has almost the correct composition for. 
Portland cement, though within recent years it has frequently been 
necessary to add a small amount of surface clay. The rock dips 


120 
ALLENTOWN ATLAS | PLATE X 








A. Loading cement rock at quarry face. 





B, Remains of some of the first kilns used for the manufacture of Portland, 
cement in the region, at Coplay, Pa, ; 


‘Vd ‘YI1BzVN 


“Og JUOUTED 


puvpWog dajxeqq jo yuri 


IX 981d 








122 
northeast at an angle of 7° to 18° and strikes N. 45°-60° W. 
The quarry has an approximate area of 600 by 900 feet and a work- 
ing face of 100 feet. The rock is hauled from the quarry up an 
incline by cable to the mill. | 
The rock in the cement limestone quarry, which is seldom worked, 
is greatly shattered, so that the dip and strike can only be deter- 
mined approximately. The dip is about 31° NE. and the strike N. 
87° W. Numerous small fragments of crinoids can be seen on - 
the weathered rock surfaces. 


Hercules Portland Cement Co—The mills of the Hercules Port- 
land Cement Co. are a short distance beyond the boundaries of the 
Allentown quadrangle, about 2 miles northeast of Nazareth. The 
buildings were completed and the machinery was placed in position 
in 1907, but lack of capital prevented the company from starting 
operations. It has now been in operation several years. It was 
first known as the Atlantic PortlafMd Cement Co. The plant con- 
sists of two units, each of which has a daily capacity of 7,500 barrels 
of cement. 

The quarry of the company is in the cement limestone at the ex- 
treme edge of the quadrangle, part of the quarry lying to the north 
of the quadrangle. The contact between the cement limestone and 
the underlying dolomitic Lmestones is exposed in the quarry. Com- 
pression has caused the overlying thinner-bedded limestones to be 
thrown into folds whereas the underlying beds yielded by a slight 
faulting. Considerable quartz and calcite vein material occurs 
along the contact of the two formations. The cement limestone 
contains many fossil fragments and the underlying magnesian lime- 
stones have yielded numerous imperfect casts of gastropods. 

Lawrence Portland Cement Co.—The plant of the Lawrence Port- 
land Cement Co. is outside the quadrangle a short distance north 
of Siegfried and near the place where hydraulic limestone was 
first discovered in the region during the excavation for the canal — 
of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co. The quarry, which long sup- 
plied the cement rock, is long, narrow, and deep and lies between 
the canal and the railroad. At present it is idle and filled with 
water. The company has a large quarry on the edge. of the Allen- 
town quadrangle, on Hokendauqua Creek. It was long worked by 
the Bonneville Portland Cement Co., a company no longer in ex- 
istence. It is 400 by 150 feet in area and 135 feet deep and is the 
deepest cement quarry in the region. Some years ago the 
rock was tested by borings to depth of 275 feet. The percent- 
age of calcium carbonate in the rock increased with depth, which is 
characteristic of most quarries of the region. From the surface to 
a depth of 220 feet the rock contained less than 70 per cent calcium 


3: 


carbonate but more than 70 per cent below that depth. At the 
bottom the rock contained 73.28 per cent calcium carbonate. The 
strata are almost horizontal. 

The east part of the quarry is on the alluvial plain of the creek. 
About 6 feet of alluvial pebbles, cobbles, and clay cover the cement 
rock. 

This company is obliged to obtain limestone from other regions 
to mix with the cement rock. For many years they worked the 
quarry north of Catasauqua, which contained considerable rock 
low enough in magnesium carbonate to be used. Recently, however, 
the limestone from Annville has been mainly used. 


Nazareth Cement Co.—The plant and quarry of the Nazareth Ce- 
ment Co. are in the southeastern part of Nazareth. The company has 
a single large quarry, which has cement Hmestone in the southern 
part and the more argillaceous cement rock in the central and north- 
ern part. The line of separation between the two kinds of rock can 
be distinctly seen. The gray limestone at the base dips 42° NE. and 
strikes N. 55° W. The overlying cement rock is considerably 
crumpled and in places the structure can only be determined by 
the veins of calcite and quartz that have a tendency to follow the 
bedding planes. The quarry measures about 1200 by 400 feet in 
area and is about 50 feet deep. Usually the proper mixture can be 
obtained by quarrying both cement rock and cement limestone and 
mixing them in proper proportions. Some years ago, before the 
quarry had been extended so far to the north, a small clay pit was 
operated at times to obtain material to mix with the rock that ran 
too high in calcium carbonate. 

Penn Allen Portland Cement Co.—The plant and quarry of the 
Penn Allen Portland Cement Co. are about 1} miles northeast of 
Bath. The company has but one quarry, in which the upper beds 
of cement rock are worked. As these strata are deficient in calcium 
carbonate limestone must be purchased. The company has used 
limestone quarried by the Industrial Limestone Co. near Hanover- 
ville. 

Pennsylvania Cement Co.—The works of the Pennsylvania Cement 
Co. are half a mile east of Bath. The southern part of the quarry 
is opened in the gray crystalline cement limestone and the northern 
part in the overlying black argillaceous cement rock. By combining 
the rock from the two portions in different proportions according to 
the kind of rock quarried in each a proper mixture for Portland ce- 
ment is readily obtained. A few beds of high-magnesium limestone in 
the limestone quarry cause considerable difficulty. Pockets and seams 
of clay have been found in the quarry. The strata are considerably 
folded and in one place apparently faulted. In general they dip to 
the northwest at angles that range from 15° to 385°. 


124 


Phoenix Portland Cement Co.—The plant of the Phoenix Portland 
Cement Co. is half a mile southwest of Nazareth. The cement 
rock quarry is close to the mill, and the cement limestone quarry is 
1 mile to the west, about half a mile north of Georgetown. The 
original quarry lay to the west of the plant but the present one 
is on the east side of the mill. The company formerly operated 
a quarry about a quarter of a mile to the north, close to the over- 
lying slate. The rock was low in calcium carbonate and was used 
for natural cement. The rock in the main quarry dips 25° NW. 
and strikes N. 10° E. The plant has a daily capacity of 2,500 barrels. 


Quarry Methods. 


The quarry methods used by the cement companies are similar 
throughout the district. If possible the quarry is opened in the 
side of a hill and the tracks run into the quarry on the level so that 
as the quarry is extended a greater height of quarry face is obtained. 
In some places, however, it is necessary to open a quarry by excavat- 
ing in a fairly level surface, and then the rock must be hauled up 
an incline to the surface. 

In almost every quarry the variations in the rock in different 
parts make it advisable to have an extension face and tracks radi- 
ating to different points in order to obtain a mixture of uniform 
composition by combining the rock that is high in lime with that 
which is low in lime. 

Formerly the rock was quarried in benches by the use of small 
drills and small blasts. Now, however, the companies have found 
it more economical to blow down enormous masses of rock at one 
time, at some blasts more than 60,000 tons. To do this a series of 
churn drill holes is put down about 10 to 15 feet back from the quarry 
face and about the same distance apart and driven to the level 
of the bottom of the quarry, which is usually about 100 feet. These 
holes are then charged with dynamite and exploded simultaneously, 
electric detonator being used. The rock is so easily shattered that 
these great blasts break most of the rock sufficiently to be loaded into 
ears. The larger blocks are broken by small charges of dynamite 
placed in holes made by small compressed-air hand drills. 

Most of the companies use steam shovels for loading the rock into 
ears, although in some quarries the loading is done by hand. In the 
quarries that are driven into the hillsides on the level small lo- 
comotives or mules are used to haul the cars to the mill. Where 
the quarry is sunk below the level of the mill the cars are pushed 
by hand or hauled by mules to the foot of the incline, where they 
are attached to a cable to be hauled up the slope. The rock is 
dumped into a storage bin or directly into the gyratory crushers» 


125 


Methods of Portland Cement Manufacture. 


In general there is little variation in the methods employed 
throughout the region for the manufacture of Portland cement, 
although somewhat different types of machinery are used. The 
different stages include (1) coarse grinding, (2) drying, (3) fine 
grinding, (4) calcining, (5) cooling or seasoning, (6) mixing with 
gypsum and grinding the clinker, and (7) seasoning in storage 
houses preparatory to bagging or packing in barrels. As these pro- 
cesses have been described in many publications that deal with the 
technical side of cement manufacture, they will be described briefly 
without mention of minor details or descriptions of all the types of 
machinery that are in the 10 plants of the quadrangle 

1. The first stage of coarse grinding is done almost exclusively by 
great gyratory crushers. The properly combined rock is fed to the . 
crushers from bins, dumped directly from: the cars, or brought 
from the rock house by a belt conveyor. In some plants the rock 
passes to a set of smaller gyratory crushers or rolls. 

2. The fragments of rocks are dried in short rotary kilns, which 
in a few plants are connected with the ends of the burning kilns 
and thus use the heated gases, which would otherwise escape at once 
into the air. 

3. Different kinds of machines are used for the fine grinding— 
ball mills, tube mills, Huntington mills, Griffin mills, Kominuters, 
pulverizers, and other types. One mill, used the Emerick 
air separator. Most of the mills grind the rock so that 95 
per cent will pass through a 100-mesh screen and approximately 
85 per cent will pass through a 200-mesh screen. 

4. From the mills the pulverized rock is taken to bins and from 
there is fed into the kilns. At present all the companies use rotary 
kilns, which are continually being replaced by larger sizes. At first 
nearly all were about 40 feet in length, then 60, 80, and 100 feet. 
and one has recently been installed that is 220 feet in length and 10 
feet in diameter. The fuel costs are considerably less in the larger 
kilns in proportion to the greatly increased capacity. 

The kilns are fired with coal that is ground so fine that about 95 
per cent will pass through a 100-mesh screen. The coal dust is 
forced into the kiln by fans or compressed air. 

The first kilns used in the district were the upright. Several of 
these, known as Schoefer kilns, are still at the plant of the Coplay 
Cement Manufacturing Co. They consisted of three compartments, an 
upper heating chamber, a middle clinkering chamber, and a lower 
cooling chamber. The pulverized rock was mixed with water and 
molded into bricks, which were first dried and then carefully placed 
in the upper chamber by hand. The material passed in turn through 


126 


the other chambers and was withdrawn at the base. These kilns were 
not satisfactory, for much of the material was not uniformly burned, 
the amount of labor required was excessive, and scarcely more than 
100 barrels of cement could be burned in each kiln daily. On the 
other hand, the fuel consumption in the upright kilns, which ranged 
from 45 to 65 pounds of coal to the barrel of cement, was much less 
than that required in the rotary kilns. 

d. In some mills the clinker is stored under cover for a short time 
before being ground, but the practice ,of storing it in the open, 
where it is allowed to season for several weeks before grinding, is 
now being adopted by many mills. 

6. After cooling and seasoning the clinker is taken to mills for 
regrinding. In almost every plant the same type of mill is used 
for grinding the clinker that is employed in pulverizing the rock. Be- 
fore grinding gypsum is added to the clinker to retard the setting of 
the cement. : 

7. From the mills the cement is taken to the storage bins, where it 
remains for some time to season and is then withdrawn for ship- 
ment. It is shipped in paper or cloth bags that hold 95 pounds 
and occasionally in barrels that hold 380 pounds. The Bates valve 
bag is widely used in the district. 


Economic Considerations. 


The cement industry of the Lehigh district has undergone remark- 
able changes since it started. The factory price in bulk fell steadily 
from $3 a barrel in 1880 to 67.4 cents in 1912; it rose during the 
World War and reached $1.90 in 1920; then receded to $1 in 1923. 
The output with few exceptions has been increased from year to year, 
and yet the geographic market for the cement from this district 
has gradually decreased on account of the building of plants in 
sections of the country that were formerly supplied by the Lehigh 
product. In no other part of the country can cement be produced 
at so low a price as in this district, and the condition of the in- 
dustry continues promising regardless of the competition and re- 
duced prices. Increased efficiency has resulted, and the plants of 
the Lehigh district are models for other cement companies through- 
out the country. Experimentation still continues, and new types 
of machinery and new details in manufacturing are sure to re- 
sult. 

Some of the companies have failed to appreciate the value of a 
careful study of the structure of the cement-rock strata, by which 
their quarries could have been operated more economically. Like- 
wise several of the plants might have been located more advan- 
tageously if the geology of the region had been carefully studied in 
advance. | 


127 


The possession of cement rock of so nearly the correct composition 
for Portland cement, a very unusual occurrence, and the close proxi- 
mity to the great industrial centers of the country are the two great 
assets that have enabled the Lehigh cement district to achieve and 
maintain its preeminent position. With the skill and efficiency 
acquired by years of experience and the increasing demand for 
cement the companies may look forward to many years of prosperity 
unless competition becomes too great. 


BUILDING STONES. 


In many places throughout the quadrangle building's have been 
constructed of the local limestones, sandstones, and gneisses, but 
almost without exception these structures are old, most of them 
antedating the railroad. For many years no building stone has 
been quarried in the region other than for foundations. The White- 
field house in Nazareth, begun in 1740, probably the oldest house in 
the quadrangle, is built of local limestone. 

Limestones. The abundant limestone strata that underlie most of 
the valleys of the quadrangle may contain good building stones 
in some places, but no quarry of good limestone for building is 
known. There are several reasons for this lack of good stone, the 
chief of which perhaps are the shattered character of the rock, the 
irregularity of the joint planes, the curvature of the beds, and the 
presence of numerous veins of calcite and quartz. All these features 
are the result of the intense compression to which these rocks have 
been subjected at different times since their deposition. Another 
defect is the: irregularity of the beds and their great variation in 
erain and thickness owing to the frequent recurrence of shallow 
water during the periods of deposition. Many of the limestones are 
ripple marked and sun cracked, and thin beds with shale partings 
or even beds of shale or sandstone alternate with thick beds of lime- 
stone. For these reasons rectangular blocks of rock are difficult to 
obtain without the removal of an excessive amount of waste rock, 
and the cost of labor required to quarry and dress the stones is 
prohibitive. Some of the strata in certain quarries might be used 
to advantage for building and the less desirable stone for ballast 
or for fluxing material. , 

Another objection to some of the limestones for building is their 
change of color on weathering. Most of the limestones are dolo- 
mitic, but the magnesium content differs in the different layers. 
When fresh the rock is all bluish, but on weathering the more dolo- 
mitic layers become much whiter than the others. The limestones 
that border the cement rocks contain considerable sand in irregular 
masses and have a tendency to become blotched by weathering, on 
account of their heterogeneous composition, 


128 


Notwithstanding these objections, however, which spoil them for 
the better grades of building stone, the limestones of the region 
have been used in the past for foundations and occasionally for 
buildings and will no doubt long continue to be quarried for local 
use. | 

Sandstones. The Cambrian sandstones along the slopes of the . 
mountains have been more extensively quarried for building than 
any other rocks of the quadrangle. These sandstones are known to 
the building trade as the Potsdam sandstones or quartzites, although 
they do not belong geologically to the Potsdam sandstone but to 
the much older Hardyston quartzite. This rock has been extensively 
quarried along the end of the mountain three-quarters of a mile west 
of Iron Hill, along the mountain opposite the west end of Calypso 
Island and farther west, in several places near Aineyville, east and 
northeast of East Allentown, and three-quarters of a mile northeast 
of Hellertown. Although the same formation is well developed in 
other parts of the quadrangle the rocks have been largely meta- 
morphosed in many places to a compact taffy-yellow chert in which 
all bedding’ planes have been obliterated and the rock has been 
locally so broken or brecciated as to be unfit for building stones. 

The Cambrian sandstones that have been quarried are composed 
of quartz sand and a few pebbles, the largest of which are a quarter 
of an inch in size, firmly cemented with silica. When fresh the 
rock is bluish white in color, but as it contains some finely dissem- 
inated pyrite the rock on exposure to the weather, both in buildings 
and in outcrops, changes to a dull yellowish-gray tint that makes 
a pleasing appearance. The stone is so compact that it possesses 
very great strength and does not disintegrate from the action of frost. 
In the quarries the beds are fairly uniform and in most places are 
from 10 to 18 inches thick. The joints are regular and readily 
permit the quarrying of rectangular blocks of suitable size. 

The available quantity of these Cambrian sandstones is small, and 
several of the quarries were abandoned on account of the exhaustion 
of the easily quarried material, yet in other localities near by good 
stone can still be obtained. In most places the quarries were 
opened on hillsides where there was little overburden, and the 
quarries were abandoned when it became necessary to remove much 
waste rock. 

Many large buildings have been constructed of these sandstones, 
among which the princinal buildings of Lehigh Universitv—Packer 
Hall, the chemistry building, the library building and the new 
memorial building—are the best known. Packer Hall, erected in 
1869, is the largest building in the region built of this stone. 

The Triassic strata of the southeastern portion of the quadranele 
contain some sandstone beds that have locally been used for build- 


129 


ing stone. In the vicinity of Hummelstown, Pa., and in the Con- 
necticut River valley the Triassic strata furnish excellent sand- 
stones that have been widely used, but in the Allentown quadrangle | 
the sandstones are too full of shaly partings or are interbedded with 
so many thin beds of useless shale that it is doubtful whether they 
will ever be extensively quarried. They will, however, continue to 
furnish small quantities of stone of fair quality for local use. 

Interbedded with the Ordovician black shales and slates (Martins- 
burg shale) in the northwestern portion of the quadrangle are local 
layers of brown sandstone suitable for building stone. These beds 
are most numerous in the vicinity of Kreidersville, where they 
have been utilized for foundations and for a few barns and houses. 
The color is objectionable for residences, and the beds are not uni- 
form in thickness or in composition. | 

Gneisses. Elsewhere in Pennsylvania the gneisses have been ex- : 
tensively quarried for structural stone, but in the Allentown quad- 
rangle they have been little used, probably in the main because a 
quarry must be opened at considerable expense before the quality 
of the rock can be definitely determined. On the surface the gneis- 
ses of all kinds are so broken by the action of frost or so greatly 
decomposed that a large amount of work would be necessary to 
reach good stone. Below the zone of freezing the stone is broken 
by joints into large irregular blocks that could be handled only by 
expensive mechanical equipment. The irregularity of the joints 
would cause an excessively large amount of rock to be discarded as 
waste, although this condition may not prevail everywhere. As 
large quantities of crushed rock for concrete and ballast are re- 
quired in:the industries of the region and in the making of perma- 
nent roads, market might be found for the rock that is unsuited 
for building stone. 

The gneisses of the quadrangle furnish a wide variety of stones, 
ranging from dark-brown hornblendic to light granitic rocks, some 
of which are beautifully banded and others present a uniform ap- 
pearance. In general the darker gneisses are more common in the 
eastern part of the quadrangle, especially in the vicinity of Hexen- 
kopf Hill, and the lighter-colored ones are more abundant in the 
region hetween Bethlehem and Vera Cruz. 

The gneisses contain no objectionable minerals except in a few 
localities, where pyrite is a common constituent. The chemical 
and physical character of the rocks renders them very durable as 
building stones under all climatic conditions. The economic possi- 
bilities of opening quarries in the gneisses should be investigated. 

Diabase.—Diahase or trap rock, a dark fine-grained igneous rock 
occurring in the southeast part of the quadrangle, has been used for 
‘a few buildings. Tt is being quarried in the 880-foot hill 2 miles east 
of Coopersburg by the Coopersburg Granite Co. and by E. W, Brad- 

9B, 


130 


ford for use as cemetery monuments. A large stone-polishing shop 
built at Coopersburg in 1923 is operated by the Coopersburg Granite 
Co. This bluish-black rock with fine granitic texture takes a good 
polish. 


SLATE. 


For full discussion of origin, composition, texture, quarrying, 
testing, and uses of slate, see Dale, T. N., and others.” 


General Characteristics of the Martinsburg shale. 


The northwest corner of the quadrangle is underlain by shales 
and slates that belong to the Martinsburg shale (long called “Hud- 
son River slates’), of Upper and Middle Ordovician age. These 
beds constitute part of a great band that extends almost uninter- 
ruptedly from New York to Alabama and contains workable slate 
beds in many places. In Pennsylvania the band is from 5 to 8 miles 
in width and extends across the State in a curve from New Jersey 
on the east to Maryland on the south. The formation consists of 
about 3,000 feet of shales and slates, sandstones, and limestones. 
Workable slates are not everywhere present in the formation but 
oecur only at certain horizons in a few counties of the State, chiefly 
in Lehigh and Northampton counties. In these counties good slates 
are found:in two bands that extend from Delaware River about 42 
miles to the southwest. 

In this region the formation can be roughly divided into three 
members. The lower member consists almost entirely of shales 
which only locally contain beds of limestone or sandstone; the mid- 
dle member contains many thick and thin beds of brown, locally 
calcareous, sandstone; and the upper member is composed of shales 
with few sandy strata. The lower and upper members contain many 
beds that have been so thoroughly metamorphosed that they now 
yield high-grade slate, but the middle member, on account of its 
massive sandstone beds, was not sufficiently compressed to convert 
the interbedded shales into workable slate. 

The slate of the lower member is relatively hard because of the 
ereater amount of siliceous matter and has long been known as the 
“hard vein” slate. It is worked in many quarries at Belfast and 
Chapmans, a short distance north of the Allentown quadrangle. 

The upper member of the formation contains the quarries that 
are so extensively worked at Bangor, Penn Argyl, Wind Gap, 
Slatington, and Slatedale. The slate of this member is softer and 
is known as the “soft vein” slate. 





61Dale, T. N., and others, Slate in the United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 586, 
1914. 


131 
Slate Deposits. 


Distribution. In this quadrangle the lower member of the Mar- 
tinsburg shale, which contains the ‘hard vein” slate, extends from 
the boundary of the cement rock northwestward to a line that 
passes near Kreidersville and Beersville. The middle member con- 
tains much sandstone, and no workable slate crops out along Hoken- 
dauqua Creek from Kreidersville northward beyond the boundaries 
of the quadrangle. The upper member les wholly to the north of 
the quadrangle. All the quarries shown on the map (PI. IT), ex- 
cept No. 19, are opened in the lower member. 

Although all the quarries thus far operated are along the head- 
waters of Catasauqua and Monocacy creeks and their tributaries, the 
same strata underlie the intervening divides. The slate has been 
quarried in the valleys on account of the deeper cover of decayed rock 
on the divides. 

Throughout the belt where the quarries are situated workable 
slate is not everywhere obtainable, but good beds can be found by 
prospecting in many places besides those where quarries have al- 
ready been operated. 

Structure.—The strata that contain the slate of the region have 
been greatly deformed by intense compression, by which they have 
been thrown into close folds. In most of the quarries of the region 
there are synclinal folds:that have a general northeastward trend. 
In many places the synclines are overturned so that both arms dip 
to the southwest at low angles. In other places the beds on the 
southeast limb of the fold, locally called the “incrop” beds, dip 
steeply to the north, whereas the beds on the northwest limb, called 
the “outcrop” beds, dip to the southeast at low angles. The “in- 
crop” beds contain the best slate, although they are thinner than 
the beds on the trough of the syncline, called the “turn,” or than 
the “outcrop” beds, owing to the greater squeezing to which they 
have been subjected. The complicated folds in the region make the 
exact correlation of particular beds in different quarries impossible 
except where excavations or borings are close together. In the 
Slatington and Bangor regions the position and location of the most 
valuable beds are fairly well known, but in the Allentown quad- 
rangle the available information does not warrant even an ap- 
proximate correlation, although the same beds have probably been 
worked in several of the quarries. 

Character.—The slate of the quadrangle is considerably harder 
than that found at Slatington and Bangor and justifies the name of 
“hard vein” slate. The hardness and brittleness of the roofing slates 
made from this material cause many of them to break when nail 
holes are punched in them unless considerable care is exercised. 


132 


In general the ribbons are more numerous, thinner, lighter in color, 
and less lable to serious disintegration than those in the “soft vein” 
slates. Pyrite can be easily detected in much of the material, but 
as it occurs in isolated crystals its decomposition does not greatly 
weaken the slates although it slightly discolors them. Calcite and 
quartz veins, both called “spar” by the quarrymen, are abundant 
in places and tend to follow the bedding and cleavage planes. For 
several feet on either side of the veins the slate does not split readily 
and is consequently discarded as waste. 

The slates, which are bluish black when fresh, fade on exposure 
to a light gray yet are very durable, as some slate roofs in the 
region are said to be more than 60 years old. The change in color 
is accompanied by a slight change in chemical composition, by which 
the carbon, the pyrite, and the small amount of carbonates of lime 
and magnesium are removed. 

The following partial analysis of slate from Daniel’s quarry was 
made by E. H. 8. Bailev®? at Lehigh University. 


Partial analysis of slate from Daniels quarry. 


Se ee ee he ee 1.29 
OOF Oe Bie te ote ellen obi ial : iene tuake ot eee eee 2.72 
Ca Cee wisses «sats ohtb ix alin pete eisai ain se ee 6.18 


or 


The specimen had a specific gravity of 2.78 and an index of 
porosity of 0.14. 

Origin.—The slates of the region are metamorphosed mud deposits 
which were laid down in a sea that existed in the region during 
later Ordovician time. In certain places calcareous deposits were 
formed which now constitute the interbedded limestones that are 
exposed near Seemsville; in other localities sandy deposits were 
formed. 

The change from the shales to slate was effected by the great 
earth movements that were most active at the ends of the Ordovician 
and Carboniferous periods, during which the strata were thrown into 
complicated folds. The compression also caused the formation of new 
minerals, chiefly muscovite (sericite), vein and chalcedonic quartz, 
chlorite, pyrite, magnetite, hematite, and carbonates of lime, mag- 
nesia, and iron. These minerals all tended to arrange themselves 
with their flat sides and long diameters parallel to the direction of 
the compressive force. The abundance of parallel grains of muscoy- 
ite and chlorite which readily separate into thin cleavage flakes, is 
the cause of the excellent cleavage which slate possesses in distinc- 
tion from other classes of rocks and to which it owes its chief value. 
The same metamorphic forces cemented the individual layers of slate 
so thoroughly that the rocks no longer separate readily along the 


ee 


62 Am, Soc. Qivil Eng. Trans. yo]. 22, p, 542, 1894. 


bedding planes, and in many places it is difficult to measure the dip 
and strike of the beds in order to determine the structure. The 
layers differ somewhat in composition, and consequently it is pos- 
sible to determine the original beds on a cleavage surface by the 
bands of different colors that cross it. These bands or beds that 
differ in color and composition from the main mass of the rock form 
the “ribbons” of the slate. 

During or subsequent to the conversion of the shale into slate 
openings were formed in the rocks in which percolating waters pre- 
cipitated quartz and calcite. In the disintegration and removal 
of the slate the masses of quartz were left as a residuum and are 
very common in the soil of the slate hills. South of Miller’s quarry 
and in the other places great masses of vein quartz several feet in 
diameter are piled along the fences, where the farmers have thrown 
them in clearing the fields. 

The slate disintegrates near the surface and forms a clay soil 
filled with thin flakes of less thoroughly decomposed slate. As de- 
composition and consequent disintegration of slate take place the 
property of even cleavage disappears, so that it is necessary to remove 
a considerable thickness of material in places before reaching good 
slate. For this reason quarrying on the tops of hills, where erosion 
has removed less of the decomposed cover, is more expensive than in 
the valleys. 


Uses. 


Most of the slate produced in the quadrangle has been used for 
roofing material. So common are slate roofs in the region that al- 
most every shed or structure of any kind is covered with slate. Many 
houses even have slate shingles on the sides as well as on the roofs. 
The next largest quantity of slate has been used in sidewalks in the 
towns of the section. At present concrete walks are gradually re- 
placing the old slate ones. 

Much slate has also been used for fence posts, and in some places 
near the quarries scarcely any wooden posts are seen. The slate 
posts are not very desirable, however, as they disintegrate by frost 
action and also have a tendency to lean to one side as they settle into 
the ground because of their weight. In some places fences are made 
by cutting large holes in the slate fence posts into which boards are 
fitted that extend from post to post. In other places boards are 
bolted to the posts and wire fencing is nailed to these boards. The 
posts are generally made about 12 to 14 inches wide and 2 inches 
thick. (See Pl. XI). 


134 


Some slate has also been used for steps, gravestones, foundations, 
and walls. For these purposes the refuse of the quarries is suitable, 
but the demand is so small that only a little of the material unfit for 
roofing slate can be utilized, and beside every quarry there is a 
great heap of waste material that seems to be approximately as 
large as the quarry opening. 





Plate XII. Slate fence posts near Bath, Pa. 


Economic considerations. 


For many years the slate industry of this region has been in an 
unsatisfactory condition and few of the quarries have been operated 
full time. At many quarries the men have been given employment 
only two or three days a week for months at a time. The quarry- 
men find that it is not advisable to accumulate a large stock of 
finished slate, for it changes color through fading sufficiently to lower 
the selling price, especially if stored in the open air, although its 
wearing qualities are not lessened, and consequently, when building 
operations are slack, the quarries must curtail their output. As the 
amount of slate available is very great and the quarries are operated 
independently, there has been ruinous competition, which has forced 
the less favorably located quarries to close. All the old slate quar- 
ries of the quadrangle were from 1 to 3 miles from the nearest rail- 
road so that naturally they could not compete with those of adjoin- 
ing regions in close proximity to railroads. The quarry of the Achen- 
bach Slate Co. did not share in this disadvantage, as it is along the 
Lehigh & New England Railroad. 


Under present conditions the slate industry of the quadrangle will 
probably never again be restored to its former activity. Whenever 
the need arises for additional slate quarries in this general region, 
however, the demand can be supplied. 


Slate Quarries. 


1, 2, 3. No data could be obtained in regard to these old slate 
quarries, which have long been abandoned. They are now filled 
with water and no rock is exposed. 

4. Miller’s slate quarry.—Th-s quarry furnished more slate than 
any other in the quadrangle but has been idle since 1904. It is 
said to have been worked for about 50 years. The pit, which is 
now filled with water, measures approximately 250 by 200 feet in 
area and is said to be 130 feet deep. The structure of the beds 
cannot be determined because the rocks are poorly exposed. Along 
the southeast side of the quarry the strata strike N. 70° W. and dip 
28° SW. The slate obtained from this quarry was of good quality, 
even though it contained numerous ribbons. The expense of hauling 
the slates to the railroad was perhaps the principal reason for clos- 
ing the quarry. 

The following description of this quarry is given by R. H. 
Sanders. :°3 

“Chester County quarry is 200 by 250 by 130 feet deep. The slates dip 20° 
S. 40° W. Cleavage horizontal. At 10 to 40 feet from the top of the cut, veins 
of quartz show parallel to the bed plates. ‘The slates are all thin bedded and the 
beds differ slightly in color. Some few of the slates have a smalk amount of iron 
pyrites in them. ‘The blocks coming out of the quarry are large and even in size. 
Some of them are 20 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 feet thick but do not seem to 
split well. There is a little water in the quarry. It is worked by two cable der- 
ricks, run by one 40-horsepower engine.” 

5. Howers quarry.—This is a long-abandoned quarry along a 
small tributary of Catasauqua Creek. The opening, now filled with 
water, measures about 50 by 50 feet. The structure can not be 
determined in the weathered rock exposed near one side of the pit. 

6. Ziegenfuss quarry.—Abandoned quarry that is filled with 
water. The pit measures about 100 by 175 feet and is said to be 
about 50 feet deep. The structure is not determinable, but the strata 
that were observed dip about 30° 8. 

7. Ziegenfuss quarry—At this quarry the great pile of waste 
slate and the size of the opening, which measures about 150 by 100 
feet, indicate extensive quarrying, although nothing has been done 
here since 1900. The strata dip 15° N. and the cleavage 5° 8. The 
slates are thin bedded and contain some iron pyrites. 

8. This opening along a creek is a small pit that has been long 
abandoned, and no data are obtainable. 

9,10. These two abandoned quarries are filled with water. Each 
measures approximately 150 by 150 feet. Only a small area of 





63Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. D3, vol. 1, p. 106, 1883. 
+The numbers refer to similar numbers on the map (PI. IT). 


136 


strata is exposed. On the south side of No. 9 a small synclinal 
fold overturned toward the north is exposed. The cleavage is about 
20° SE. Some iron pyrites are present in the slate. 

11. A gmall abandoned slate quarry that is filled with water. 
No data could be obtained. 

12. A small quarry along the roadside. Very little slate was 
quarried here. 

13. Achenbach Slate Co’s. quarry.—This quarry is the only one 
recently in operation in the Allentown quadrangle. The quarry 
was opened in April, 1914, and produced about 230 squares of roofing 
slate by the close of the season. The quarry was too shallow to 
vield the best slate, but the material was promising. <A 4-inch core 
drilling to the depth of 75 feet showed several good beds of slate. 
Three bands of spar and crooked slate were penetrated at depths 
of 18, 38, and 60 feet. The material obtained was graded as No. 2 
and No. 8 and was sold for $3.25 to $3.50 a square. 

14. This is a small abandoned quarry, which shows indications 
that the material was used on the roads, as the rock seems to be too 
creatly weathered to have furnished any roofing slate. 

15. This is a small abandoned quarry. The beds dip 10° 8S. and 
the cleavage is 15° S. 

16. Daniels quarry—This quarry is the oldest in the region. It 
is said to have been first opened in 1836. The quarry is filled with 
water, which prevents any observations of the structure. The beds 
seem to dip’ to the southeast at an angle of about 20°. The slate 
contains many fine ribbons. 


R. H. Sanders®* gave the following description of this quarry: 

“Daniel’s quarry is abandoned and full of water, 250 by 150 feet, probably about 
40 feet deep. The slates are thin-bedded with a ‘fat dip and cleavage of 20° S. 
Some of the slates on the pile have about 10 beds in them. ‘There are about 50 
squares or the pile; most of them have iron pyrites ir them at the junction of the 


ribbons; the slates on the end of the pile have changed color. Some of them have 
also thin veins of quartz in them.” 


17 and 18. These are two small abandoned slate quarries. 

19. This is an abandoned slate quarry 14 miles northwest of 
Lanark and is the only place in the Saucon Valley where workable 
slate cccurs. It is not a true slate but a very slaty limestone. The 
quarry furnished considerable stone that was used for pavements, 
steps, and gravestones. No roofing slates were produced. The strata 
dip to the south. | 


MATERIALS FOR CRUSHED ROCK. 


The rocks of the Allentown quadrangle include a vast quantity of 
material suitable for crushed rock for road metal, ballast, and con- 
crete. The construction of new concrete buildings for the larger in- 
dustries, the building of bridges, the paving of streets in the towns 





64Pennsylvania Second Geol, Survey, Rept. D8, vol. 1, p. 102, 183. 


—————— 


137 


and cities, the macadamizing of many roads, and the extension of 
trolley lines and railroads have demanded an enormous amount of 
crushed rock, most of which has come from quarries within the quad- 
rangle, and much of this material has been furnished to other sec- 
tions. For these purposes the limestones have been most extensively 
used, although the sandstones, gneisses, and diabase have also. been 
quarried in some places. 


Limestones.—The map shows that nearly all the railroads of the 
quadrangle are confined to the limestone areas and following along 
streams that are bordered by bluffs in many places 100 feet in height. 
These conditions favor the quarrying of limestone, because a good 
quarry face can be easily developed and transportation facilities are 
close at hand. So numerous are the quarries that it would be use- 
less to attempt descriptions of them. Some of the largest are near 
Redington, Freemansburg, Hellertown, Bethlehem, East Allentown, 
Allentown, Catasauqua, Coplay, Shoenersville, Nazareth, and Tata- 
my. 

The rock quarried in almost all places is covered with a minimum 
amount of rotten limestone, residual clay, or glacial debris. An 
average thickness of approximately 4 feet only must be removed from 
the surface. The surface, like that of most other limestone regions, 
is very irregular and contains many pits or pockets, so that in some 
parts of a quarry the top cover may ‘be practically absent whereas 
close by the clay may be 15 feet or more in thickness. In structure 
the limestones show great variations. The complicated folds of the 
region can be observed in hundreds of places. Some quarries contain 
beds that are almost vertical, in others the strata are nearly horizon- 
tal, and in others the rocks are so greatly crumpled and faulted that 
the bedding planes can be traced only with difficulty. The more in- 
tense the folding the more shattered are the rocks and consequently 
the more easily are they crushed. Open fissures and small caves 
formed by solution are not uncommon, and in some of them excellent 
specimens of stalactites and stalagmites can be obtained. Some fine 
blocks of cave onyx are occasionally found but not in sufficient quan- 
tities to be of economic importance. In some places the cavities have 
been filled with clay. 

Shale layers are numerous in the limestones close to the gneiss, 
and in some places are a serious handicap in the successful operation 
of the quarries. Concretionary masses or lenses of black chert are 
also present in many places and locally veins of quartz. 

Many quarries produce from 20,000 to 25,000 tons and some as 
much as 80,000 tons a year. The price depends on the size to which 
the rock is crushed. 

Sandstones—For certain purposes rocks harder than limestones 
are desired, and the siliceous sandstones and gneisses are crushed 


to supply this demand. In many places where the Cambrian sand- 
stones have been quarried primarily for building stone some of the 
rock has been crushed. Crushed sandstone has been furnished by 
quarries half a mile southeast of Emaus, along the Lehigh Valley 
Railroad west of Bethlehem, south of Kmaus, and west and southeast 
of Springtown. In comparison with the amount of crushed lime- 
stone, however, the amount of crushed sandstone furnished by the 
region is very small, owing to the greater expense of crushing the 
rock, its greater distance from the railroads, the amount of hillside 
wash that so generally covers the beds, and the difficulty of obtain- 
ing good quarry faces, such as can be readily obtained in the lime- 
stones. 

The larger pebbles and cobbles of siliceous sandstones found in the 
extensive deposit of glacial material along the trolley line a short 
distance northeast of East Allentown were separated from the sand 
and finer pebbles and crushed for ballast. 


rneisses.—The gneisses of the quadrangle have been used to fur- 
nish a little crushed rock. In places temporary rock crushers have 
been set up to utilize the gneiss boulders that have rolled down the 
sides of the mountains. Some years ago one of these crushers was 
operated about 14 miles northeast of Limeport for several months. 
The largest quarry that has been opened in the gneiss to furnish 
crushed rock is three-quarters of a mile east of Vera Cruz. The rock, 
which is a very dense granitic gneiss, is of considerable scientific 
interest because of the presence in it of small amounts of molybdenite 
and uraninite. The quarry has been idle for several years, and the 
crusher is now dismantled. Another quarry is near the top of the 
mountain along the trolley line between Bethlehem and Seidersville. 
This quarry has furnished much crushed rock but is now idle. The 
rock is a compact dark banded gneiss. 

In many of the sand quarries in the decomposed gneiss the more 
resistant, less thoroughly disintegrated masses of rock are crushed 
for ballast. This material makes a smooth road, as the rocks are 
eround fine in a short time and the kaolin acts as a binding material 
in.dry weather, but the coating must be renewed frequently. 

Diabase or trap rock.—Throughout this region great quantities of 
dark igneous rocks, mostly diabase but known in the trade as trap- 
rock, are used as ballast. Considerable rock of this kind occurs east 
and southeast of Coopersburg and in the extreme southeast corner 
of the quadrangle. The most promising location for a trap-rock 
quarry is the 880-foot hill about 2 miles east of Coopersburg, where 
the rock is quarried for monuments. A short distance south of the 
borders of this quadrangle similar rock is extensively quarried for 
crushed stone, especially at Rock Hill, 3 miles southeast of Quaker- 
town. 





139 


For railroad ballast and for macadam roads trap rock is one 
of the best materials known, and an extensive industry can be 
developed in this region when market conditions warrant the open- 
ing of new quarries. Competition with quarries favorably located 
and already in operation has been the principal factor in delaying 
the utilization of the trap rock of this quadrangle. 


ROCKS FOR PAVING BLOCKS. 

Diabase or trap rock as it is generally called by contractors, 
is one of the best kinds of rock for paving blocks. Although none 
of this material has been quarried in the Allentown quadrangle 
several carloads of blocks made from the loose masses of rock from 
the 880-foot hill east of Coopersburg have been shipped to Phila- 
delphia for street paving. The few men employed claim to have 
made good wages. The rock, which is very compact, dark gray, and 
medium coarse-grained, can be readily trimmed to the desired shape 
and size. The small demand at the present time for this material 
is the principal obstacle to the development of the industry. A 
quarry in similar rock a short distance south of this quadrangle 
was operated for several years and produced a considerable output 


of paving blocks, but the demand has decreased. 


LIMESTONE USED FOR LIME. 


On the map (PI. If.) 800 limestone quarries are shown, and 
numerous small openings have been omitted. Most of these quarries 
have been operated to obtain material for lime. At one time al- 
most every farmer had a limekiln on his farm where he burned 
enough lime for his own use. If rock could be obtained readily 
on his own land he opened a quarry of his own, but if not he 
hauled the stone from near by quarries. /Limekilns are numerous 
even in the areas of gneiss or slate several miles distant from the 
nearest limestone outcrops. ' . 

For many years the use of lime as fertilizer has gradually de- 
creased, and the lime so used is obtained from places where large 
kilns are in continuous operation. The expense of quarrying the 
rock and burning a few hundred tons a year was excessive, and 
frequently the lime obtained was imperfectly burned. Consequently, 
as facilities have improved for obtaining lime from other regions 
where uniform material could be secured, scores of kilns were al- 
lowed to fall to pieces, and the quarries were abandoned. Though 
many farmers still use lime on their fields there is no doubt that the 
quantity of lime used in fertilizing the soils is much less than when 
the farmers owned and operated their own kilns. The heavy clay 
soils of the limestone region, although formed from calcareous rocks. 
as well as the soils formed from the other kinds of rocks, are deficient 


140 


in lime, and unquestionably a more general use of lime would be 
advantageous, in the improvement of both the chemical and physical 
properties of the soils. The lime made in the region has also been 
widely used for plaster. 

At the writer’s suggestion S. H. Salisbury, Jr., and G. C. Beck 
analyzed numerous samples from five different quarries in the Or- 
dovician limestones of the Allentown quadrangle. From _ their 
published results*’ the following extracts are taken to show the 
variations in the chemical composition of some of the magnesian 
limestones that have been so extensively quarried for lime. 


Quarry A. 


Quarry A is situated in Northampton County three-eighths mile west of George- 
town on the Newcenterville road, and is 1£ miles from the northern boundary of 
the quadrangle. The strata here are nearly vertical and vary in thickness from 2 
to 8 feet. Near the center some folding and faulting occur so that it is diffieult 
to follow the strata to the top of the quarry. 


Analyses of limestone from quarry A. Allentown quadrangle. Pa, 









































| 
’ Thickness of MeQ MeCOs S'Ov ReO; Ca) 
Sample beds (feet). age | a “ze - 
AAG ere South face 15.41 | 32.20 | 
JN Oye eee South face 1714 | 35.84 | 5.82 1.23 28.19 
SAL ee ee eee ot South face 16.81 35.12 
VA ye ees 214 18.95 | 39.60 
ty ea 314 17.09 | 35.72 | 
A4 ee Soe rey 16.78 35.05. | 10.35 : 5.25 47.08 
‘oe: BY, 18.00 37.64 / 
AGN oe Se AS Pl, 18.45 | 38.54 
Aaa eee | 614 18.48 38.74 
Moa. 2352 4a 4 17.32 | 35.20 
iN ge 3}. oe eee 214, 17.56 | 36.65 7.35. | 3.85 | 29 56 
Gige 2th 6%, Ui A | 37.04 
MU a eae oan 2 7/12 18.35 38.34 | 
A 1 eee ee iA 35.80 
AS eee eee est #8 L5 18.68 39.00 
NG Be gh eee 214, 17.59 30.67 | 
PGi fone Se 1% 15.29 31.93 | | 
ATG eee North face | * 18.40 38.47 8.92 2.90 27 .48 





Highest ig A13, 18.68 per cent. Lowest is A15, 15.29 per cent. Greatest dif- 
ference, 3.39 per cent. Average 17.51 per cent. 

These results show quite small variation, considering the number of strata, the 
ereatest difference being 3.59 per cent. The average of the CaO seems to be about 
28.41 per cent. Sample A4 shows a) very large increase in CaO with a drop of 0.8 
per cent MgO from the average of the quarry. This large increase of CaO in 
sample A4 over the beds Alb and ‘A9 on both sides of it is significant. 


Quarry B. 


Quarry B is located in Northampton county, one-half mile north of Brodhead on 
the Nazsireth turnpike, 42 miles from the northern boundary and 44 miles from the 
eastern boundary of the quadrangle. This quarry faces the west, is 700 feet long 
and about 30 feet high, with bedding and cleavage planes nearly indistinguishable. 
Samples were taken every. 35 feet at various heights from the base. 


66your, Indu. and Eng. Chemistry, vol. 6, pp. 8387-851, 1914. 


141 


























Sample ee eer MgO | MgCOs SiOz R2Os CaO 
of 3 19.18 39.98 2.36 | 1.97 28. 89 
ea x | 10 | 2).49 42.83 
re 20 18.68 | 39.04 
bi) (a ae 15. | 19.94 | 41.68 Teed 3.85 28.29 
ay | 13 | 20.16 | 42.14 | 
12h) yyy 3 19.43 40.61 | | 
3) Jae Ree | 25 | 19.98 | 41.76 | nim 
i) = 5 | 20),.25. | 42,32 
i, 10 | 29.35 | 42.58 
ivan) aa g | 0.54 | 42.93 | 
hie) ae | 15 | 20.47 42.78 1.74 1.17 29.43 
J 10 | 19.75 | 41.28 | 
re 1 ie 25 | 19.88 | 41.55 
1 > ray 19.29 | 40.32 | | 
Piet ae ‘i 20.37 | 42.57 2.45 0.93 2%) 50 
1 8 i 7 | 20.34 | 42.51 
‘aa 7 19.85 41.49 
(3) uy 18.79 39.27 
TO peeate | 7 20.16 42.14 | 
2 ae | 7 19.00 39.71 | 








Highest, B10, 20.54 per cent. Lowest, B3, 18.68 per cent. Greatest difference, 
1.86 per cent MgO. Average 19.84 per cent MgO. 


The results here, as might be expected from the structure, show less variation 
than in quarry A, while the average is 2.3 per cent higher. The greatest difference 
is only 1.86 per cent MgO, this quarry being the most regular in the distribtion of 
the magnesia; of any that we have analyzed. ‘The lime content is also quite regular, 
the greatest variation of any of the constituents being in the percentages of silica. 


Quarry C. 


Quarry C is located in Lehigh County, about 100 yards north of the Coplay 
station of the Lehigh Valley rajlroad, three-eighths mile from the western bound- 
ary of the quadrangle and 6} miles from the northern boundary. The beds here 
are of varying thickness, are vertical or nearly so, and some of them are in- 
trieately fclded. 


Analyses of limestone from quarry OC, Allentown quadrangle. Pa. 


a a SS genres eee SSS = 























hicknes | f 
Sample eee iets MgO MgCOsz SiOz R2Oxs CaO 

er cs 13.29 27.72 | 

[Chis 2 Sai eae 41, 17.54 36.66 | 

(CL. 21% 15.10 31.56 | 

eS nes 8 0.97 2.08 | 42.64 
(hs a ae 15 0.76 1.40 — 54.58 
Cl i ae 2u, 16.72 84.95 ? 
Ct) ae 1 SLyAZ 8.46 | 17.68 15.57 5.36 39 77 
of) a res 1% 15.57 32 54. 

(Ee ene 2 | 15.46 Beal 

Rt oes bo wa 84 0.87 1.82 53.47 
(TD aa 5 ae 33% 13.76 28.76 12.38 6.20 39 24 
oe ae Ses at, / 16.98 35.49 

CW SS eee ty 12 16.47 34.42 

———— 1% 15.66 32.73 

Geo ee = 2 7/12 17.35 36.22 oy Uae 8.96 99 99 
) Se 14 16.19 39.84 

(uit) 2 14.41 30!.12 

Ut. = 4 | 1.52 3.18 

70) eee 4, | 12.58 26.29 | 

Chl |. z= 1% | 16.77 35.05 6.44 4.60 28.64 
(22. . Gi 1% | 14,29 29.87 | 

(Cpe ks. 1% | 16.64 34.78 6.01 5.13 29.73 








The highest is Cl, 17.54 per cent MgO and the lowest is C20, 12.58 per cent 
MgO. This is with samples 5, 4, 6, 9, and 19 excluded. The average is about 
15.58 per cent of MgO. 

The very low per cent of MgO in samples 3, 4. 6, 9, and 19 can be aeceounted 
for by an inspection of the hand samples, each of which shows erystals of calcite 


142 


soattered throughout the groundmass. All these samples effervesce greatly with 
cold dilute hydrochloric acid and the analysis shows them to be nearly pure lime- 
stone. In connection with the high lime, the high silica and low magnesia in 
samples 6 and 10 are to be noted. 


Quarry D. 

Locality D is loeated in Lehigh County about one-half mile north of Friedens- 
ville. 4% miles from the southern boundary, and 54 miles from the western boundary 
of the quadrangle. This location is an abandoned zine mine, and the beds are 
nearly vertical, while the hand specimens show considerable weathering. 


Analyses of limestone from locality D, Allentown quadrangle, Pa, 


EE 


Ree yes 














fees, 
Sample eatnate e AE MgO Mg00s | SiO2 R203 Cad 

| 
eal oe 
DIG eee ee 45% | 18.11 | 37.88 
Dat ena 634 19.60 40.98 | 
Diet ohne 5, 19.20 | 40.15 6.40 1.39 | 18.23 
Tan ees 23% 19.79 | 41.38 3.89 1.40 28.33 
Dey see eee 45% 18.38 | 38.34 8.91 2.31 27.44 
DOV eee eet 19.56 40.90 6.75 | 2.75 | 28.10 
Vigne ee BY% 19.00 39.73 | 
Dea tee Ye 16.80 | 35.13 | 
Dove eee | 3% 16.62 34.75 | 
Dig Wee er ties 6 16.54 4.59 | | 
Dil ices tee 3 12.95 | 27.08 | 13.60 3.31 29.75 
Di Steet ee a ay a 15.59 | 32.60 13.61 24.33 
Dis eae | 4% | 17.97 | 37.58 
Dibediitec wars | 3% 17.69 | 36.90 
Diggr were F Tg 18.62 38.93 | 
Digs secees on | 11 7/12 16.39 34.97 | 
Dinten ce | 4 19.09 | 39.92 

} | 





Highest D4, 19.79 per cent MgO. Lowest D11, 12.95 per cent MgO. Greatest 
difference, 6.84 per cent MgO. Average, 17.87 per cent MgO. 

This quarry shows the greatest difference in magnesia of any of the quarries, 
yet the average is within about 0.3 per cent of that of quarry A, located near the 
northern boundary of the quadrangle. These beds are characterized by rather low 
lime content and high silica. In particular samples 11 and 12 show, for reduced 
magnesia, an increase in silica rather than in lime, as might be expected. 


Quarry E. 
Loeality FE is located in Northampton County, one-eighth mile west of quarry B. 
being a cut of the Lehigh & New England railroad. The beds are sharply inelined 
to the north. 


Analyses of limestone from locality EH, Allentown quadrangle, Pa. 














: | 
Sample ea MeO MgCOs SiOz R2Os CaO 
pop Aes. tym aca Te 16.97 35.47 12.03 4.06 29.03 
Bags, vos % 15.00 31.35 8.71 4.53 28 26 
HS Serre 25% 11.45 23.93 12.25 | 1.30 16.62 
BOP Ee Wak See Rd 1% 14.59 30.49 | 
BS Wel oes 1% 13.60 28,42 
HG Fa ae AY, 13.87 28.99 8.08 | 5.39 24.54 
Ar Wninee (eee 1% 7.58 15.85 | ~ 
Vir Bae lel | 4% 12.65 26.44 . 
BG eee ee 1% 15.77 32.96 | 
Ri a hh 2 oe 14.71 30.74 
Ria eae 61% 16.38 34.23 | | 
Elites woos bY, 13.18 27 55 21.52 8.10 18.08 
Blo ees 2a ees 1 6.70 14.00 . | 
1S. eat 15% 14.64 30.60 
nt We Y, 14.51 30.33 
NibA See: 18.36 38.37 5.20 © 3.08 31.42 
spl Poon ee ea le 25, 16.01 33.45 2.55 3.76 33.63 
Py Geer ey 21, 9.75 20.38 . 
ISS 634 16.86 35.24 
IO re ee es 9 14.84 31.02 | 
R90. Sete 14.76 30.85 | 
} 








1435 


Highest 215, 18.36 per cent MgO. Lowest IS, 12.65 per cent MgO, excluding 
sumples 3, 7, 12, 17.. Greatest difference, 5.71 per cent MgO. Average, 15.10 per 
eent MgO. 

Samples 3, 7, 12, and 17 are excessively low in magnesia. Inspection of the hand 
specimens shows that 3 and 17 contain crystals of calcite throughout the ground- 
mass, while 7 and 12 are clay shales and give off an earthy odor when breathed 
upon. . 

The difference in content of lime is also to be noted, ranging from 16.62 per cent 
in E3 to 33.63 per cent in 116, a difference of 17 per cent. There is also con- 
siderable variation in the silica. 


LIMESTONE USED FOR FLUX. 

The numerous iron furnaces of the region have required a great 
amount of limestone for flux, which has largely been obtained with- 
in the region. Occasionally limestones from this quadrangle have 
been shipped to adjacent areas. The Parryville Iron. Co. at Parry- 
ville long obtained fluxing limestones from a quarry near Northamp- 
ton, and the New Jersey Zine Co. operates a quarry at Allentown 
to obtain fluxing material for use at Palmerton. 

Nearly all the quarries from which stone is obtained for flux are 
situated along the railroads, and spurs are built into the quarries. . 
In many places better material might have been obtained elsewhere, 
but the cost of hauling the stone to the railroads was prohibitive. 

Although the HLmestones have been and still are being extensively 
used for flux, there are some objectionable features which have in- 
convenienced the operators, the worst of which is the presence of 
layers that run high in silica. Most of the furnace operators pre- 
fer limestones that contain less than +4 per cent silica, and where 
shaly or sandy strata are interbedded with the limestones it is nec- 
essary to separate these beds as waste reck. The presence of solu- 
tion cavities filled with clay, which are common in regions where 
the rocks have been deformed or shattered by earth movements, is 
equally objectionable. Clay filling deep solution pockets in the sur- 
face is also present in places, and the removal of this overburden 
greatly increases the cost of quarrying. 

The Bethlehem Steel Co., the largest consumer of limestones for 
flux in the district, uses much local stone but also imports a-great 
deal from New Jersey which is lower in silica. 

The following analyses of local limestones have been selected 
from hundreds made by the Bethlehem Steel Co., the Crane Iron 
Co., and the Thomas Iron Co., all of which have been largely de- 
pendent upon the limestones of the Allentown quadrangle for their 
fluxing material during the past half century. 


Analyses of limestone used for flua. 




















bee 2 3 4 | 5 | 6 

G2) Oe De ee eee art Ns ed ie Ne 
Beer, | 

CaOGs Re, Ire ee a ee | 51.60] 88.12 | 52.8 47.66 | 53.67 53.20 
MarOOstas thicccnan cook aes a are 42.60 4.71 | 41.0 42.26 | 39.87 41.30 
SiGe $52 a5) sik pecnom ee aes Sameer. 3 ae 4.7 3.79 6.94 3.90 2.32 
AOS HOT N Ge en mers ie meee Rees 1.33 | aoe Oe ye 1.95 75) er 
PeaOu hen Cue Aye Nee eee ee ee | 52 (dy ee MS 1.05 535 





Quarry of New Jersey Zine Co., East Allentown, W. Wyckoff, analyst. 

Quarry of Calcite Quarry Co., Northampton, W. Wyckoff, analyst. 

Average of many samples from Chapman’s quarry of Bethlehem Steel Co., Freemansburg. 
Analyzed in company’s laboratory. 

Wagner’s quarry near iHellertown. W. Wyckoff, analyst. 

5. Bieber's quarry near Emaus. W. Wyckoff, analyst. 

js Eberhart’s quarry, West Catasauqua. W. Wyckoff, analyst. 


oo he 


The average of 14 analyses made in the company’s laboratory 
from the quarry of the Bethlehem Steel Co., Redington, gave 3.77 
per cent SiO,. 


QUARTZ-MICA SCHIST (““SOAPSTONE”). 


In several places in the areas of gneiss in the Allentown quad- 
rangle there are rocks which contain large amounts of quartz, mica 
(sericite), and sillimanite. Rock in which the sericite is especially 
abundant feels “soapy” to the touch, somewhat like tale, and it is 
locally known as “soapstone.” Actually it contains only minute 
amounts of tale. Under the misapprehension that the rock was 
soapstone quarries were opened in it just beyond the borders of the 
Allentown quadrangle, southeast of Smith Island (Island Park) and 
114 miles southeast of Seidersville. From the Smith Island quarry 
the rock was hauled to Easton to be ground for paper filler. Some 
of the material from the other quarry was used several years ago for 
furnace lining by the Bethlehem Steel Co. It is reported to have 
been satisfactory for this purpose. 


SAND AND GRAVEL. 


The local demand for sand and gravel has resulted in the de- 
velopment of many deposits that in a less populous section would 
be disregarded. Four kinds of sand are dug, each of which is 
distinct in origin and occurrence and adapted more or less to 
different uses. 

Decomposed gneiss —The most abundant sand of the Allentown 
quadrangle is that obtained where the lighter-colored quartz-feld- 
spar eneisses have decomposed into a mixture of angular particles of 
quartz and impure kaolin. Technically, decomposed gneiss should not 
be called sand, but in this section, where such material is used as a 
substitute for the ordinary kinds of sand, the commercial usage 
seems to be justified. The alteration of the feldspar to kaolin and 
the oxidation and removal in solution of the hornblende and pyrox- 


145 


ene causes the rock to disintegrate. As water which carries oxygen 
in solution is the most active factor in this change the decompo- 
sition Starts along the joint planes of the gneiss and gradually ex- 
tends into the blocks bounded by these fissures. Near the surface 
the alteration is practically complete, and all the rock is soft 
enough to crumble into sand when disturbed. At greater depths 
there are many masses of partly altered rock still so hard that 
they must be discarded when the material is quarried for sand. 
In some of these quarries these resistant blocks are passed through 
a rock crusher and screened, the iinest portions being used for sand 
and the remainder for concrete work or road metal. 

The gneiss sand pits, as shown on the map (PI. IL), He along 
the slopes of the gneiss hills, especially near Bethlehem, Ritters- 
ville, Aineyville, Emaus, and Hellertown. Besides those shown on 
the map there are scores of other openings where at times a few 
wagonloads of sand have been dug. 

The pits that are opened along the sides of the mountains in- 
crease in depth as the work progresses, and in some of them a 60-foot 
face is obtained. In some places the rock is decayed sufficiently to 
furnish sand at depths of 100 feet or even more. 

In most of the pits there is an overburden of loamy clay and fresh 
eneiss boulders derived from the outcrops of gneiss higher up the 
mountain that must be removed. In few places is this surficial 
material more than 4 feet in thickness. The quarrying is done with 
pick and shovel, and the loose material is thrown against a sloping 
screen, the mesh of which differs according to the kind of sand 
desired. The particles which fail to pass through roll to the bottom 
of the screen. By pounding these coarser fragments with the back 
of the shovel many of them can be disintegrated sufficiently to per- 
mit them to pass through the screen when they are again thrown 
against it. The other pieces are thrown aside as waste or put 
through a stone crusher. 

In some of the pits the decomposition of the gneiss is very ir 
regular, and certain parts of the pits must be abandoned on account 
of the large amount of waste rock. In one place the gneiss may be 
thoroughly decomposed to a depth of 50 feet, whereas close by 
hard rock may come within a few feet of the surface. A few pits 
contain dikes of basic rock. and this material must be discarded. 
In a pit in Bethlehem two dikes of such rock carrying much biotite 
caused considerable inconvenience, as the material resulting from 
their decomposition was worthless and had to be separated from the 
other sand. 

The gneiss sand is used for a variety of purposes. It is especially 
well adapted for a molding or core sand on account of the kaolin, 


which acts as a binder, and large quantities are used by the furnaces, 
10B 


146 


foundries, and pipe mills of the region. Tor plastering and brick 
work it is less desirable, as the presence of the kaolin is detri- 
mental, but this is partly counterbalanced by the sharp angularity 
of the grains of quartz, which increases the strength of the plaster or 
mortar. The decomposed gneiss is widely used as a building and 
brick sand throughout the region. The coarse material is exten- 
sively used in concrete work and to a less extent for road metal. 

The prices of the sand depend upon both the quality and com- 
petition. The waste material used for road work sells for a very 
low price. The industry is almost entirely local, although some 
sand is shipped to foundries and furnaces outside the quadrangle. 
The production, which varies greatly from year to year, averages 
from 20,000 to 25,000 tons. 

Glacial sand and gravel.—Although an ice sheet covered almost | 
the entire area of the Allentown quadrangle, workable deposits of 
glacial sands and gravels are comparatively few, as most of the 
glacial deposits of the region consist of clay and boulders. At the 
present time only one of these deposits is being worked for sand and 
gravel. It is located about 114 miles northeast of Emaus. For 
many years a deposit which underlies West Bethlehem was worked 
at several places, but the old pits are now largely filled. A large 
deposit formerly worked is situated about three-quarters of a mile 
northeast of East Allentown. Another deposit three-quarters of a 
mile south of Georgetown has also been worked. 

The glacial gravels and sand are well stratified and consist mainly 
of well-rounded quartz or siliceous sandstone in a matrix of loose 
quartz sand. In some places the sand predominates, but in most 
places the sand is subordinate to the gravel. 

In the deposit northeast of East Allentown that was worked by 
M. H. Bachman & Co., the upper 5 feet consist of plastic brownish- 
yellow clay beneath which are well-stratified pebbles, the largest of 
which are 8 inches in diameter, though the average is less than 2 
inches. The matrix consists of loose quartz or loamy sand. Lenses 
of fine sand free from pebbles are present in parts of the deposit. 
The pebbles, which are abundant in certain places, consist mainly 
of siliceous sandstones and conglomerates, but pieces of limestone 
and rotten shale are not uncommon. Boulders several feet in di- 
ameter occur at the base of the section. The deposit is from 40 to 
50 feet thick and rests on decayed limestone. It was worked by a 
cable excavator, the gravel being scooped up by a bucket and ecar- 
ried on a cable to the crusher house, where it was crushed to the 
size desired. Most of it was ground to a sharp sand which was well 
adapted for plastering, bricklaying, and concrete work. Some ma- 
terial that was not crushed so fine was used for roads. The annual 
production was about 20,000 tons. 


147 


Similar gravel seems to extend continuously to West Bethlehem, 
where a pit that is widely known as Rauch’s gravel pit was operated 
for many years. The following section was exposed: , 


Section at Rauch’s gravel pit** 











Feet 

Clay holding boulders, large and often sharply angular, lying irregularly 

in the body of the clay. Of this clay there remains on the hill top, as 

ATE ES eR EM OR a Pay he La. cia pled YAU eRhauel a Gases ehh GW cleat Uwe eh 4 
Gravel and sand, horizontally stratified; destitute of boulders; the pebbles 

all water worn, none more than 8 or 4 inches long. 
Streaks of pure sand. 
Sand with oblique stratification. 
Gravel and sand, stratified, but not horizontally, gray, sandy, no clay ..... 30+ 








Two wells in West Bethlehem show that the deposit of glacial 
gravel is 136 feet in depth. 

The deposit 144 miles northeast of Emaus is composed mainly of 
sand and has been extensively worked. Much material has been 
shipped from this place for use in mortar and for foundry work. 
About 30 carloads a year are shipped. 


Section at gravel and sand pit 114 miles northwest of Hmaus. 














TIE NO OTAVE!. “TUE OASsSOTted:. re. fee ck te ee eG a wee ee a dee ets Sllele ee ne 

Stratified fine yellowish-brown sand which locally contains lenses of fine 
eG Meteo eee Ne MG. sy fevyez sb lody WN le 2 BR Hie orkie Kala Bees 4 

Very fine yellowish-brown sand containing some thin lenses of ocherous 
RT OM Ma ee |. fee a Pia tie Sid ve VS seks 1 Pike oh he ole CPOE ek 17 





Three-quarters of a mile south of Georgetown a sand and gravel 
pit was formerly operated in a deposit of glacial material, which 
consists of fine buff to yellow stratified sand overlain by 5 feet of 
red plastic boulder clay that contains pebbles and boulders of 
quartz, siliceous sandstones, and slate. 


Alluvial sand and gravel.—Along Lehigh River there are alluvial 
deposits at many places, and the islands in the river are also com- 
posed of alluvial débris. In most places the alluvium consists of 
mud in which there is a large admixture of anthracite dust, but 
in a few places deposits contain much sand and gravel. Between 
Freemansburg and Redington the alluvial gravels have been dug 
for ballast in several places. 


Sand from mud-dam deposits of limonite iron mines.—In the 
discussion of ocher (p. 1538) a description is given of the character 
of the deposits formed in the mud in the ponds into which the waste 
material of the limonite mines was thrown. The coarsest sand was 


66Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rep. D8, vol. 1, p. 48, 1883. 


148 


deposited near the place where the water entered the pond, and the 
finer sediment was carried farther out. This sand, which consists 
of small grains of quartz, quartz crystals, botryoidal chalcedony, 
thin flakes of limonite, and a few fragments of shale, limestone, and 
quartzite, is mixed with considerable ocherous clay. Even when 
the mines were in operation this sand was sometimes used for ordi- 
nary plastering and brickwork, and since the mines were closed sand 
for these purposes has been dug from many of the old deposits that 
are common throughout the region. In some places several feet 
of sand comparatively free from clay can be obtained, but in most 
places layers of clay are so closely interstratified with the sand 
that clean sand is hard to get. If the material were washed a 
large quantity of good sand could be procured from almost every 
mud-dam deposit in the quadrangle. Notwithstanding the difference 
in occurrence the sand from the limonite mines in the limestone 
and that from the mines in the quartzite are strikingly similar. 

In working these deposits it is usually necessary to screen the 
material to remove any large fragments. The annual production of 
this type of sand in the quadrangle formerly averaged about 1,000 
tons a year, most of which came from deposits about 1{ miles south- 
west of Friedensville and 1 mile northeast of Hellertown. The sand 
was sold for 55 to 45 cents a ton at the pit, or 75 to 85 cents delivered. 


CLAY. 


Throughout the limestone regions of the Allentown quadrangle 
there are surface deposits of yellowish-brown or reddish-yellow clays 
which are suitable for the manufacture of brick. The clay has been 
formed by the decomposition of the limestone and consists of the 
insoluble residue after the removal by solution of the calcium and 
magnesium carbonates. The ice sheet which invaded the region and 
the water which resulted from its melting transferred and assorted 
this material, so that it no longer constitutes residual limestone clay 
in place, although in many localities a rather careful examination 
is necessary to prove that the material has been transported. In the 
process of removal and deposition considerable sand, pebbles, and 
boulders from distant points were mixed with the clay in different 
proportions. In some places these materials are so numerous that 
the clay can not be used, but in other places they are mainly con- 
centrated at the base of the deposit and interfere very little with its 
utilization. The large cobbles and boulders distributed through the 
clay are picked out and discarded, but the small pebbles and sand are 
not especially objectionable when present in small amounts. 

The clay deposits range in thickness from a thin layer to 60 feet, 
but in no place have they been worked to. a greater depth than 30 


149 


feet. In most places the workable clay is only from 3 to 10 feet 
thick. A foot or two of surface loam which contains vegetable ma- 
terial is removed, and the clay is then worked downward to the un- 
derlying limestone. As the surface upon which the clay was de- 
posited was very irregular, like that of limestone areas in general, 
the clay differs greatly in thickness in short distances, and pinnacles 
or loose blocks of limestone may come close to the surface in a pit 
where the clay averages 10 or more feet in thickness. This irregu- 
larity prevents the use of steam shovels in some places where they 
could otherwise be employed. Steam and electric shovels are used 
in some pits. 

Though the glacial clays are particularly adapted to the manufac- 
ture of brick, they were long used also for making pottery and roof 
and stove tiles. In 1742 Lewis Huebner, who was a potter by trade, 
came to Bethlehem to erect a tile stove which he had made and soon 
afterward settled in the place. His plant was set up along Monoc- 
acy Creek a short distance north of Bethlehem, and he used. clay 
found near by. The tile stoves, some of which were made almost 
entirely of tiles though others were made of tile and cast iron, were 
in use for many years. They were about 5 feet in height. M. 8. 
Henry™ gives the following description of the industry: 


Pottery. for many years carried on by Lewis Huebner, was a very lucrative tride 
in Bethlehem and in 1782 that business was rated at 130. It is said that the de- 
mand could not be supplied. more particularly in years when apples were plenty. 
Apple-butter boiling by the farmers was universal. and earthen crocks to preserve 
it were in great demand. Mr: Huebner also made the tiles for stoves, as well 
as the common tiles for the covering of houses, barns, and stables. For barns they 
were in use many years, and some of them may be seen to this day. When tile 
could not be had, farms and stables were thatched. Pipe heads were also made by 
Mr. Huebner in large quantities. 

In the early settlement of the region bricks were made in many 
different places throughout the quadrangle where at the present 
time nothing remains to determine the location of the pits and 
kilns. The lack of easy transportationm—no railroads, canals, or 
improved roads,—caused many small brickyards to be opened for 
supplying local demand. With the improvement of transportation 
facilities the small plants have been closed, and the industry is now 
restricted to a few localities where large quantities of brick are 
manufactured. The present operating plants of the quadrangle are 
in northwest Allentown, a short distance south of Allentown, near 
Bingen and near Georgetown. Within recent years bricks have 
been made in Bethlehem, near Emaus, Hellertown, Catasauqua, and 
Nazareth. 


*tHenry, M. S., Histery of Lehigh Valley, p. 205, 1860. 


150 


C. C. Sensenbach operated a brickyard west of Aineyville in South 
Allentown from 1890 to 1918. The clay which contained few glacial 
boulders, was underlain by fine sand, some of which was mixed with 
the clay. The plant was operated from April to October each year 
and made daily 15,000 to 18,000 bricks. 

On the south side of Little Lehigh Creek near the Highth Street 
bridge in South Allentown Mr. Kichline made brick for more than 25 
years. The clay, which contained very few pebbles, ranged in thick- 
ness from 4 to 11 feet. It was underlain by rotten limestone, which 
sometimes became mixed with the clay and caused the bricks to crack 
while burning. 

The Ochs & Frey Brick Co. had two pits in operation near the 
south end of the Eighth Street bridge in South Allentown until 
about 8 years ago and now has one pit located about + mile to the 
southwest, west of the Fairview Cemetery. The four kilns of this 
company had a combined capacity of 870,000 bricks. The clay in 
the old pits ranged in thickness from 2 to 12 feet and was overlain 
by about 6 inches of vegetable loam. A layer of gravel and sand 
separated the clay from the underlying limestone. In the present 
pit the clay ranges from 3 to 13 feet in thickness. An electric shovel 
is employed in the digging. 

The Ed. G. Mattern brickyard, at Tenth and Tilghman streets, 
Allentown, was operated for about 60 years. The company ceased 
operations about 8 years ago and the site is now occupied by resi- 
dences. In that time the clay was removed from a large area in 
northwest Allentown. The clay in most places ranges from 3 to 7 
feet in thickness although in a few places it is 12 feet thick. The 
three kilns had a combined capacity of 500,000 bricks. 

Frederick Bros.’ brickyard at Fifteenth and Allen streets, Allen- 
town, operates three kilns that have a combined capacity of 700,000 
bricks. The clay formerly used was the ordinary residual type ob- 
tained from pits near the plant. It ranged from 3 to 12 feet in 
thickness, was overlain by a foot of loam and underlain by rotten 
limestone. The clay contained few glacial boulders. At present 
the clay used is being taken from an old mud-dam deposit located 
north of the fair grounds at 19th and Tilghman streets. The old 
iron mine which furnished the clay is now being filled. There are 
some layers of sand interbedded with the clay. The clay is dug by 
means of a steam shovel. 

Swoyer Bros. Brick Co. plant, the largest in Allentown, is at 
Madison and Allen streets, Allentown. There are six kilns each of 
Which has a capacity of 805,000 bricks, and the yard is well equipped 
with dryers and brick-making machinery. The clay ranges in thick- 
ness from 3 to 35 feet although at present clay exceeding 10 feet is 
seldom found. Pinnacles of limestone that rise nearly to the surface 


151 


were formerly considered as serious obstacles in the use of steam 
shovels, but for the past five years such shovels have been in success- 
ful operation. The only product is sand-faced red brick. 

The largest and most recently built brick plant in the quadrangle, 
located about 14 miles south of Allentown, belongs to the Lehigh 
Brick Co. The materials used are the residual and glacial clays that 
cover all the limestones of that section except along the streams. 
The clay, which varies in thickness from 6 to 20 feet, has been re- 
moved from a considerable area and eventually will be stripped from 
a large field. In places it is too sandy to use. Residual limestone 
masses and angular and rounded pebbles and glacial boulders up to 
5 feet in diameter are abundant in places. The largest rocks are 
left in the pit, those several inches in diameter that have been loaded 
into the cars by the steam shovel are picked out by hand on the 
grizzlies, and the smaller pebbles are eliminated or crushed by the 
conical rolls. 

The plant is well-equipped with a large stock house, belt convey- 
ors, rotary dryer, centrifugal crusher, 8 round kilns with a capacity 
of 75,000 bricks each and 2 long continuous kilns with 22 openings 
each. 

The combined annual output of the brickyards in and near Allen- 
town is large but variable. These bricks are used locally and 
shipped to places along the lines of the Lehigh Valley R. R. and 
Central Railroad of New Jersey, especially to Newark, N. J. and to 
Scranton and Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 

The Nazareth Brick Co. operates a plant about half a mile north 
of Georgetown. The clay contains numerous boulders from 1 to 2 
feet in diameter that must be thrown aside. Lenses of sand and 
pebbles are present in parts of the pit and where numerous render 
the clay useless. The smaller pebbles are crushed in a Chilian mill, 
through which the clay is passed. The deposit occupied a basin in 
the limestone, and the rocks rise to the surface on all sides. It has 
a thickness of 60 feet, although it is worked only to a depth of 30 
TECL. 

The plant of the Bingen Brick Co. on the Lehigh-Northampton 
county line, half a mile southwest of Bingen, long used the clay from 
an old mud-dam deposit from the Bahl limonite iron mine about 
three-eighths of a mile to the north. The deposit covers about 12 
to 15 acres to a depth of 12 to 16 feet and includes the material de- 
posited in two ponds, one on each side of Saucon Creek. The plant 
is on the south side of the creek, but clay is obtained from both 
sides. In recent years residual limestone clay has been used. 

The material in the Bingen mud-dam deposits was more uniform 
and less sandy than that of most of the other mud-dam deposits of 
the region, although the section exposed in the pit showed strata of 


152 


somewhat different composition. The entire thickness of the deposit 
was dug, and when thoroughly mixed the clay was very tough. The 
composition of the clay was unlike that of most brick clays, as it 
was a mixture of ocher; red, white, blue, and black clays; shaly frag- 
ments of limonite ore; and some grains of quartz sand, all of which 
were washed from the limonite ore in the log washers. The prevail- 
ing opinion among iron-mine operators that such clays are use- 
less seems.to have been disproved at this plant as brick of fair quality 
were successfully made here for many years. They were much more 
porous than the brick made from’ the glacial clays described above 
and consequently were poorly adapted for outside use but entirely 
satisfactory for inner walls. Their porosity caused them to disin- 
tegrate under the action of frost on account of the amount of water 
which they absorbed. 


The plant is well equipped and operates four kilns, each of which 
has a capacity of 180,000 bricks. Except for two or three months 
during the winter the plant is in continuous operation. 


There is little doubt that many other mud-dam deposits throughout 
the region might be equally serviceable for the manufacture of brick, 
although few are so favorably situated as the Bingen deposit, which 
was directly along the line of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad 
between Philadelphia and Bethlehem. Almost every old limonite 
mine has a mud-dam deposit nearby, where the waste material from 
the ore was carried. Although the clays associated with the limonite 
ore are of many different kinds the following analyses are fairly 
characteristic. Analyses 1 and 2 were made by J. M. Stinson*®* and 
3 and 4 were made by J. W. Shimer. 


Analyses of clays associated with limonite ore in the Allentown quadrangle, Pa. 




















1 2 1 4 
SLC at tan se ee Reena ee 53.170 49.130 Yel s 64.55 
SAT Gyn ri ey Beceem 24.4.3 33.873 21.76 22.77 
SRP OCG eta tee Se ten ea emo re 5.400 3.040 | . -99 5.65 
TL ART Oa ee pce ere ee ea We i A ot Seek .130 .120 22 Re: 0) 
Ma ones ater setae tee eee ee eek oa eee Oe eee 3.376 987 69 1.28 
S01 ee ee a mere ate ne Be tt te 2 A 22 026 2.19 2.8) 
UP ODES In fae oe ee ee ere cee Ok ee ae 7.155 6384 3.02 3.2) 
EPEC ATIICs aC pet een eee eo a Se eee 1.250 190 || “22S 
Wider t-2 Sos 0 eae women a arn ce 2 el 1 ye 4.860 11.500 4.75 4.67 


1. Clay found inside an orebomb, Schneider’s mine, 3 miles southwest of Friedensville, 
2. Clay from Wharton mine, 2 miles southeast of Hellertown. 

3. White clay from Wharton mine, 2 miles southeast of Hellertown. 

4. Yellow clay from Wharton mine, 2 miles southeast of Hellertown. 





In the manufacture of Portland cement some of the companies near 
Nazareth at times find it necessary to add some clay to the rock used, 
which runs too high in lime. Elsewhere in the cement region the 
cement rock is almost invariably too low in lime. At the plants of 
the Dexter Portland Cement Co. and the Nazareth Cement Co. some 


68Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rept. MM, p. 268, 1879, 


las 


of the glacial and residual limestone clay that lies at the surface, 
such as is used elsewhere for the manufacture of brick, is added when 
necessary. The amount needed, however, is small and is obtained 
nearby. The Nazareth Cement Co. formerly worked a small pit near 
the mill, which is shown on the map (Plate IT). 


MINERAL PIGMENTS. 

For many years the mining and preparation of mineral pigments 
has been an active industry in this part of Pennsylvania, and at the 
present time several paint companies have headquarters in Allen- 
town, Bethlehem, and Easton. Naturally the bulk of raw materials 
used comes from other regions, as each plant requires a great variety 
of materials, such as no ‘one district produces. The paint industry of 
the region, however, owes its development to the local occurrence of 
ocher, umber, and black shales, which have long been mined. 

Ocher.—Ocher, which is a mixture of clay and limonite, is almost 
invariably associated with the Hmonite iron ores that have been so. 
extensively worked in different parts of the quadrangle. During the 
active operation of the iron mines the better grades of ocher were 
frequently taken out separately, washed, and marketed for paint. This 
was the beginning of the present paint industry of the region. Some 
vears ago paint mills which used local ores almost entirely were op- 
erated just west of Pine Top and also near Bingen. The plant of 
Henry Erwin & Sons, first known as the Blue Mountain Paint Mills, 
began operations at the present site along Monocacy Creek just north 
of Bethlehem in 1868. 

The ocher as mined contains numerous hard particles of limonite 
‘and quartz, which are removed by mixing thoroughly with water in a 
log washer and then passing the material into a series of troughs in 
which the overflow at the end of one trough passes into the next 
trough, calrying only the finest materials in suspension near the sur- 
face. The first trough collects the coarsest particles which have 
dropped out of suspension, and each succeeding trough receives finer 
sediment. The water. with the suspended particles of ocher in some 
plants is passed through as many as 26 troughs, each 16 feet in 
length, and the sediment collected in all the troughs is thrown away. 
The water then is carried to a large pond, where after the sediment 
has settled the water that is practically free from suspended particles 
of ocher is permitted to flow away. When the basin is filled with 
sediment it is permitted to dry to the consistency of putty by exposure 
to the sun and then dug by shovels and put in wheelbarrows to be 
taken to dry sheds. In these sheds, where it is protected from rain, 
the ocher at some plants is air dried and at other plants is dried by 
steam, which passes in pipes beneath the racks on which the ocher 
is. laid. Afiter thorough drying the ocher is pulverized in mills and 
bagged for shipment. 


154 


In most places no attention was paid to the ocher while the mines 
were in operation, and everything brought to the surface—iron. ore, 
ocher, and different kinds of white, red, and black clays—was put 
into the log washers. The coarse ore was saved, and the water carry- 
ing all the finer materials in suspension was carried through troughs 
to large ponds made by earthen dams. These ponds for the collection 
of sediments were necessary in order to avoid the obstruction of the 
streams into which the waste water flowed. While the iron mines 
were being worked these deposits of mud were regarded as worthless, 
but in recent years a number of them have been found to contain some 
fairlv good washed ocher. At certain times all the material washed 
from the ore was highly colored, and these layers when thick enough 
can be readily separated from the beds that are more sandy or fess 
highly colored with limonite. The sediment deposited near the place 
where the water entered the pond invariably contains too many 
coarse particles to be of value for paint, but at the sides of the pond 
farthest away from the mine only the finest sediments were deposited 
and washed ocher of fine quality can be obtained there in some de- 
posits. 

Within the quadrangle at the present time no ocher or limonite iron 
ore is being mined nor is any ocher being obtained from mud-dam de- 
posits. Both east and west of the quadrangle, however, ocher of both 
kinds is being worked, the occurrences being similar to those prevail- 
ing within the quadrangle. It is probable that some of the iron ore 
deposits along the base of the mountain northeast of EKmaus, as well 
as those in the limestone vallevs which, when formerly worked, yielded 
considerable marketable ocher, might be found to contain equally as 
2ood material as that now obtained in nearby regions. The demand 
for this material, however, is not great enough to justify the necessary 
investigations. The amount of mud-dam material required is also 
small, and consequently there is no necessity for examining these de- 
posits, even though this work could be done rather easily by shallow 
excavations. Scores of these mud-dam deposits are present in the 
region, for a settling pond was built near almost every limonite mine 
operated. 

The following analyses of materials from adjoining quadrangles are 
characteristic of the ochers and mud-dam deposits that are mined: 


Analyses of ochers from Topton and Haston, Pa. 














| 1 2 3 
cS Gr ais SEY rT ET PE GLAM Sac oy se | a 
\) | 
S102 rs oF nes eh Ss eee ca re ES, Se 5.50) 58.50 80.70 
BloOer arti es gees ee ed ee ie heh Aras eS 7 aN te ade ied es 18.66 20.15 12.36 
FiéeQig, 222 ce oh ll a ee ee a ey. ie eS 17.49 15.25 87.64 
MeO 6 ek eS ee Se ae OE i Nc Fe 2 ie eee ee 87 
Combined water) 5. Sa ts toed, ty eS eee See AR MY 2s pane: 8.35 6.10 7.8 








1. Best grade of ocher from Topton. 
2. Second quality of ocher from 'Topton. 
3. Ocher from mine of A. K. 8S. Sampson, South Easton. 


155 


Anaylsis of mud-dam deposits 114 miles northeast. of Breinigsville, Pa.«» 
[A. S. MeGreath, Analyst.] 





ROME MERIT te IR on wl cra oaks a) serie, Betta eae ied tees 60.53 
RETIRE TOT ga eas os hs wn a ee UL Ee es 17.40 
STEREOS ROCM MEM. See ek eS Sd by ge teres, pe We 9.29 
LA 2S AMIENS oe 5 a a ae es Ser Ge RA .O8 
RSA YP MMR ET Sot duos cia. tes wx, ged wD IS eee ke Mayne 1.92 
Ee ee aE RN re al ae 5 w oles alaaptl eae obo oaks, hats 5.51 
OEE SUE WEY V eBid OER Se, 2 hg rc} iso... ci QPh MS shape Bee tes ov ie oes: 9) Sis Bae 








Umber.—Much of the ocher of the region contains small amounts of 
manganese oxide and almost every analvsis of limonite iron ore shows 
its presence. Under these conditions it seems rather strange that in 
few localities is the percentage of manganese great enough for the 
mixture to be called umber. 

On the south slope of Quaker Hill, or Camel’s Hump, about 24 
miles north of Bethlehem, there is a deposit of umber that was form- 
erly worked by Henry Erwin & Sons and later by C. Kk. Williams & 
Co. The deposit was worked in a small way for more than 25 years. 
It was worked in shallow open pits and shafts. The following sec- 
tion at one side of the main pit is typical, although a different ar- 
rangement of the materials may be found 10 feet distant. 


Section in. umber pit of C. K. Williams & Co., 24 miles north of Bethlehem, Pa. 














Feet 
OM Te INTEL Ge WHS es Berks ke eat es ete Be eo oe 3 
ema RERD TS OUVT ANE Ver tr etl ers So Say wo i ior'gios 4 Sm ie 0 Ee, a0 Woe ie ve ve 14 
ee OM W. OGHETOUS CLAY 4. elie Link eh ew ada ee wiv eawe * 
Peer et VElOW OCHELOUS CLAN. ook ade ese wwe eek 8 eee ee aie 8 1 
isareprown umber (base not. exposed)... ui... we eden dee 6 

16 








In one place a pit was sunk to the depth of 48 feet, but in most 
places the umber does not extend that far. White and yellow clay is 
said to lie beneath the umber bed. 

In the layer of hillside wash there are many angular pieces of 
eneiss that have been washed from the small hill of gneiss that lies 
to the north and that has reached its present position by a strike 
fault along the north side of the hill. Within the bed of umber there 
are a few layers and pockets of vellow ocher, some of which are as 
much as 14 inches in thickness. The umber bed further contains 
many small pieces of vein quartz, fragments of iron ore, and limonite 
geodes filled with drab clay. These impurities are more abundant 
in the upper portion. 

The umber and associated materials represent the decomposition 
and replacement products of the Hardyston quartzite, which extends 





69Pennsylvania Second Geol. Survey, Rep. D. p. 338 1875. 


156 


along the south flank of the hill, as shown by the float rock. The 
umber deposit also contains some pieces of the quartzite that have 
resisted decomposition. 

The umber was shipped to Easton, where it was washed and 
eround. The finished material commanded a price of $18 to $20 a 
ton. 

A short distance east of these workings a shaft was sunk several 
years ago, and there are several tons of umber lying near the caved 
shaft. Though the color is good the large amount of grit present is 
objectionable. 





Plate XIV. Witte umber pit, 2 miles northeast of Springtown, Pa. 


Near the eastern edge of the Allentown quadrangle about two 
miles northeast of Springtown, Henry Erwin and Sons, in recent 
years, have obtained some umber of fair quality.from the farm of 
W. F. Witte. The material is taken from an open pit that was 
opened for mining limonite iron ore which proved too lean to be 
profitable. Occasional masses of iron ore of good quality were en- 
countered but the amount was small. <A large quantity of iron ore 
was mined by open cuts and by shafts in the region a short dis- 
tance to the west (Mine No. 153 described on an earlier page). 

Umber and ocher were found in the iron mines but in general little 
attention was given to them although it is said that some was dug 
and burned in kilns nearby. It was difficult to secure a market for 
the product and the industry was abandoned. Iron mining was 
begun in 1858 and continued for many years. 


Lox 


The umber in the pit now about to be reopened, after remaining 
idle since 1918, lies in a bed that is exposed to a depth of about 8 
feet. It may be thicker. It has an overburden of about 20 feet of 
hillside wash and residual clay. The umber is more uniform than in 
most deposits and contains little foreign matter other than occasion- 
al small masses of limonite. 

The umber owes its origin to the replacement of siliceous sand- 
stones and quartzites near the contact of the overlying limestones. 
Pieces of the unreplaced rock are present in the umber. 

A. partial analysis that is probably approximately correct, al- 
though the analyst is not known, is as follows: 


Analysis of wmber northeast of Springtown. 


ee —————————————————————————————————————————————————  — 


Per cent 
SRL MT artnet, Ra Cet eid ooo de. a og 3 via iv.5i vluimtate noted bie Reus % 40.00 
EY TD ae eee cc rs 8 Pa thee Sik oa atere Bhaducle HPS e's eta’ 5.00 
NE Ce ee OR PAS act x che cccce v Sere ew ale ela imeuers 25.00 
RN IE i a Ade te Ndi she: nie apne Dh uC ds leis Wcie a. ta 10.00 





A photograph of the pit when in operation about 6 to 8 years ago 
is given on page 156. 
Black shales *-In the vicinity of Nazareth some very black carbon- 
aceous shales were for many years used in the manufacture of black 
paint. Rogers” says: 


In the neighborhood of Nazareth, which is on the line dividing the Slate from 
the Limestone formation, a material is procured, which answers the ordinary pur- 
poses of black paint. This appears to be simply a more than usually carbonaceous, 
black and soft variety of the slate, occurring near the base of the formation a 
little above its contact with the Limestone * * * *. It requires to be ground in a 
dry mill, and levigated in troughs by passing over it a stream of water. Thus pre- 
pared, it constitutes, when mixed with oil. a very excellent pigment for the exterior 
of houses, fences and other structures exposed to the weather. 


A traveler in that region in 1799 reports the use of the same ma- 
terial, so it would seem that these slates were quarried for paint 
for many years. 

On our return to Nazareth we saw two men searching for coal. They had pene- 


trated to the depth of 12 feet, and were flushed with sanguine expectations of 
success. 


They were prompted to this search by the opinion of a person who_had passed 
this way not long before and was acquainted with the coal mines of Europe. 


The steward had taken from the side of the hill, near this place, a saponaceous 
black earth, which he had ground and mixed with oil and used as paint. It ap- 
pears as well and as durable as any other colour. He has by experiments altered 
the first appearance of black, and made samples of other colours with it."* 


A little of the refuse slate from the slate quarries has been ground 
and used for paint. 


70Rogers, H. D., Second annual report on the geological exploration of the State of 
Pennsylvania, p. 35, 1838. 


710gden, J. C., Excursion into Bethlehem and Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, in the yean 
1799, Philadelphia, 1805. MaIEN oat 


158 


PYRITE. 


In the discussion of the origin of the limonite (p. 44) attention 
was called to the large amount of pyrite which has been found in 
the lower workings of these ores, and an explanation of its origin 
was given. Pyrite has probably not been more generally noted in 
the mines because the amount of. water struck in the lower levels 
caused the mines to be abandoned before the pyrite was reached. 
H. M. Chance’? and Charles Catlett’’ have ably described the occur- 
rence of pyrite in association with limonite in the Appalachian 
region and have discussed the problem of its origin. 

It seems probable that the limonite of the Cambrian quartzite 
and part of that of the limestone regions of the Allentown quad- 
rangle has been formed by the oxidation of pyrite that was pre- 
cipitated from solution in ascending waters. If this theory of the 
origin of the limonite ores is correct deposits .of pyrite must be 
widespread in the region. 

Crystals or rounded concretions of pyrite are common in all the 
rocks of the quadrangle, but in only a few places have deposits 
of possible commercial value been found. Though Some pyrite has 
been marketed it has all been obtained from mines that were worked 
primarily for iron ore. The promising deposits are so unlike that 
they must be described separately. 

The largest known deposit of pyrite in the Allentown quadrangle 
is about 2 miles northeast of Emaus, on the northwest slope of South: 
Mountain. It occurs in the deepest working of one of the numerous 
limonite mines that form an almost continuous line for about 3 
miles along this slope of the mountain. The pyrite has been de- 
posited by replacement of the quartzite, and specimens can be ob- 
tained that range from practically pure pyrite through pyritic quart- 
zite to quartzite in which no pyrite can be detected. The pyrite is 
eranular, and, as determined by Chance, the grains “are generally 
small enough to pass through a 20 or 30 mesh screen; a large por- 
tion passes through an 80-mesh screen, and a considerable per- 
centage is of still finer texture.” No data are available regarding 
the exact occurrence of the pyrite ore, but it probably forms layers 
or lenses of variable thickness interbedded with nonpyritiferous 
quartzites. 

For a few years there was some extensive core drilling in the 
vicinity of this mine, and some shafts were also sunk. Although 
detailed reports are not available, it is said that considerable py- 
rite was found but the project was abandoned because of the ex- 
pense of pumping the enormous quantity of water that was en- 


— ¢ 


72Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans. vol. 39, pp. 522-539, 1908. 
7™3Tdem, pp. 916-920. 


159 


countered and also because of the difficulty of keeping the shaft open 
on account of the clay and loose rock in the upper part, which 
tended to move slowly downhill. 

The depth at which the deposits of pyrite are found depends al- 
most altogether upon the configuration of the region. In regions 
where the water level is high and erosion is relatively rapid much 
pyrite may be expected at a depth of 100 feet or perhaps less. In 
most places, however, pyrite in workable quantities would not be 
reached at less than 150 to 200 feet below the surface. 

In regard to the pyrite that underlies the deposits of the mountain 
ores the available information seems to indicate that the supply 
is abundant but at present of doubtful value. 

In the limestone regions pyrite has been found in large quantities 
in the Friedensville zinc mines (see p. 76). When the mines were 
worked the sulphide ores were less favored than the oxidized ores 
and in some of the mines the sulphides were left. These ores con- 
sist mainly of pyrite but contain more or less sphalerite. It seems 
probable that some of these ores which are too low in zine to be con- 
sidered zinc ores may be of value on account of the pyrite. 

In the limonite iron mine three-quarters of a mile northeast of 
Lanark considerable pyrite was found in the lower levels, and had 
work continued no doubt much more would have been revealed. The 
mine was compelled to close when pumping ceased at the zine mines, 
as the amount of pumping required for the drainage of the iron mine 
was too great for successful operation. Next to the Friedensville 
zinc mines this locality is regarded as the most promising place for 
pyrite ore in the limestone areas of the quadrangle. At Breinigs-— 
ville, about 9 miles west of Emaus, considerable pyrite was mined 
some years ago. , 

Chance believes that the pyrite found in the limestone was con- 
tained originally in overlying shales and has reached its present 
position by the collapse of caverns in the underlying limestones. 
The occurrence of the pyrite in the Friedensville zinc mines seems 
to disprove this hypothesis. As explained more fully in the dis- 
cussion of the origin of those ores, ascending waters unquestion- 
ably have deposited the pyrite and sphalerite through replacement 
of certain limestone strata and the filling of open fissures, and 
deposits of pyrite in the limestone areas probably originated in 
the same way. 

The economic importance of the deposits of pyrite in the lime- 
stone regions has not been determined. Though no doubt there are 
large amounts in many places beneath the deposits of limonite 
the drainage of deep mines in the limestone valleys would be a 
very serious obstacle and would prevent many, perhaps all, from 
being worked with profit. The deposits are formed along well-de- 


160 


veloped watercourses, and the amount of water that entered many of 
the old limonite mines when a depth of 50 feet or more was reached 
was so great that the cost of pumping was very high. Although 
good pyrite ore may be found locally at depths less than 50 feet, in 
most places it has been largely oxidized to limonite to a considerably 
greater depth. Little pyrite ore would probably be found less than 
100 feet from the surface, and at such depths much water would be 
found. 

Pyrite is also prominent in the Backenstoe graphite mine, des- 
cribed below. Many of the specimens on the dump indicate 
a fairly good pyrite ore, but no definite information is available 
in regard to the occurrence and general average analysis of the rock. 


GRAPHITE. . 

Graphite-bearing rocks are found in several places in the Allen- 
town quadrangle, but in most localities the amount of graphite is 
so small that it is likely to be overlooked. In three places, however, 
there is a noticeable amount of graphite, and in two of these places 
considerable development work has been done, although, so far as 
known, no attempt to concentrate the graphite has ever been made. 

Similar deposits of graphite have been worked in several places 
in Berks and Chester counties, some of them successfully but most 
of them at a loss. The failures have been due mainly to the 
difficulties of concentration on account of biotite and other minerals 
intimately associated with the graphite, the tendency to overcapitali- 
zation, the inability to procure sufficient water for concentration, 
and the uncertainties of the market owing to competition with 
foreign graphite and the conservative attitude of graphite users. 
Nevertheless a few graphite properties in Pennsylvania have been 
profitably operated. 

The Backenstoe graphite mine is about 1 mile east of Vera Cruz 
station and 1 mile west of Limeport, on the north side of the road 
that connects the two places. The history of the mine is some-— 
what indefinite, but information obtained from different sources 
indicates that it was first opened more than 50 years ago as a gold 
and pyrite mine. The large amount of pyrite in the graphite ore 
probably contains traces of gold. It is said that many men in the 
vicinity lost money in the venture. 

Between 1890 and 1900 it was reopened as a graphite mine 
and work was carried on for about two months. A few years ago the 
property was purchased by the Schuylkill Stone Co., of Philadelphia, 
and the tunnel was again cleaned out, but no further work was done. 
The development work consists of a shaft about 85 feet deep, lo- 
cated near the top of the hill, and a tunnel about 150 feet long that 
extends into the hill at a lower level. There are no exposures of 
the graphite rock near the mine, and the shaft and tunnel could not 


161 


be entered. The loose pieces of rock obtained from the tunnel and 
shaft, however, probably represent the true character of the rock 
fairly well. 

The rock is a graphitic gneiss, composed mainly of kaolinized 
orthoclase, together with some perthite, white quartz, pyrite, graph- 
ite, biotite, hornblende, and an asbestiform mineral. Many speci- 
mens show a distinct augen or lens structure, the pyrite especially 
occurring in small lenses about one-half inch in diameter, around 
which the graphite flakes are curved. The graphite flakes are 
friable, probably owing to weathering, and some of the graphite 
even appears to be amorphous. Many of the larger flakes are ir- 
idescent. Much of the rock seems to have been sheared, and the 
flakes of graphite overlap, forming bands or streaks of the matted 
flakes which extend through the rock. Pegmatites are present and 
contain large flakes of graphite that are irregularly disseminated 
throughout the rock. It is doubtful whether the mine would yield 
a good quality of graphite flake. Biotite, though relatively abun- 
dant in some specimens, is practically absent in most of the rock 
and would not be a serious handicap. Nothing is known of the 
thickness and extent of the graphite-bearing bed. 

On the farm of John Wright, 1 mile east of Emaus, on the top of 
South Mountain, some prospect pits were dug about 18 years ago. 
No information is now available concerning the amount of work 
done, the structure of the rock, and the thickness of the graphite- 
bearing bed. No outcrops of the graphitic gneiss could be found 
in the immediate vicinity of the pits. 

The rock in which the graphite occurs is an acidic gneiss that 
contains both plagioclase and othoclase, the plagioclase predomi- 
nant, blue quartz, considerable pyrite in small isolated grains, 
eraphite, and biotite. The plagioclase is greenish-gray. The gneiss 
is indistinctly banded, and the graphite flakes show little indica- 
tion of parallelism of arrangement. In some of the rock the flakes 
of graphite cut into each other. The flakes are of fair size, the 
largest one-half inch in diameter, and are tough and bright; some 
of them are iridescent. The presence of the biotite is said to have 
discouraged the men who were engaged in prospecting the property, 
and operations were discontinued. 

Across the road to the east, on an adjoining farm, a prospect 
pit was also dug, but it has now been filled and only a few pieces 
of the weathered rock remain about the opening. These fragments 
seem to be similar to the rock on the John Wright farm. 

Recently, in the operation of a limestone quarry in the pre-Cam- 
brian crystalline limestone along the west side of Monocacy Creek 
directly west of Pine Top, a band of promising graphite schist was 
uncovered. The quantity available, however, seems to be small. The 
limestone also contains numerous flakes of lustrous graphite. 

11B 


162 


MICA. 

Pegmatite dikes occur in many places in the gneisses of the Al- 
lentown quadrangle, but most of them contain very little mica. A 
few, however, show much fairly coarse-grained muscovite. One of 
these dikes, about 1144 miles southwest of Seidersville, was pros- 
pected in 1888 by the sinking of two shafts. Some crystals were 
found that produced sheets from 3 to 4 inches in width, but they 
were not numerous enough to make the project profitable. The 
muscovite was considerably clouded by included impurities. 


PEAT. 


The deposits left by the ice sheet interfered less with the drainage 
in this area than in most other glaciated areas of the country. As 
a result postglacial peat bogs formed by the filling of ponds and 
swamps along the courses of the streams are rare. The only large 
bog in the quadrangle is on the north side of Quaker Hill about 3 
miles north of Bethlehem. (See Pl. XV). The glacial débris which 
dammed Monocacy Creek, produced a shallow pond that was 
gradually filled with a growth of vegetable matter, consisting largely | 
of sedges and grasses. It is known as the Detweiler peat deposit 
and first attracted attention about 70 years ago, when during a dry 
summer it was ignited and burned for several months. It was in- 
vestigated about 25 years ago with the intention of utilizing the 
material as a nonconductor for heat in the manufacture of refrigera- 
tors and possibly for fuel. In the refrigerators the space between 
the exterior wooden box and the lining of galvanized iron or por- 
celain was to be filled with peat. 


The deposit covers about 2 acres on the south side of Monocacy 
Creek, which at this place flows in a westerly direction. A small 
stream, fed mainly by the Camel’s Hump spring, flows westward 
through the deposit and joins the Monocacy. 


The following section shows the character of the deposit near the 
south side of the area. 


 —  ————_——————————————————————— 





Section of Detweiler peat deposit, 3 miles north of Bethlehem, Pa. 


Rta im 

Peat varying in color from dark brown at the top to black at 
the: bottom! +4 Spaubeetwlens ete Face cde. 5 wetceere Male tein, Se ae at 
W ater-déposited? Claivaee cots sic t «Ss oie Sib ad tudes Soke a pe 
Glacial Still iy 2) ce eae 8 at re ote eteiet kone ns ee ee ihe 


Decomposed gneiss 


iy eee a a) aye CUS AS) aw RS Fe oh eas 2).0) eS Ola) One) 9 Le es ete 


———— a le gage 











163 


In the northern part of the area the underlying rock is Ordovician 
limestone of Beekmantown age. 





Plate XY. Detweiler peat deposit near Quaker Hill, 3 miles north of Bethlehem, 
Pa. . 


Analyses of two samples each from the top (1 and 2), middle (3 
and 4), and bottom (5 and 6) of the peat layer gave the following 
results: 

Analyses of peat from Detweiler deposit near Bethlehem, Pa. 


ema Oaliaehan, Thh.gt Analyst. | 




















| 
1 2 3 4 5 6 
a —— eve | _ =e eS SS eee 
Oe CaF (ney Ii ls CLAS 5 oe i 12.06 Sr | 14.74 10.31 10.06 9.82 
Menino Ts GLCT! 22 ee ee ee) re 47.31 46.93 44.74. 5) pals? 37.65 38.64 
PEE OAT DON 25 lee eke © ae VE a 25.17 25.46 25.70 23.79 29,45) 28.47 
OS a a ee ee Cee re 15.46 15.24 14.82 15.67 22. 84 23.07 








The high ash content of samples 5 and 6 is caused by the clay 
mixed with the samples. 

The peat ignited readily and burned for a few minutes with a flame 
and later with a dull glow. In the first stages of burning it pro- 
duced a disagreeable odor. 

SOILS. 


The soils of Lehigh County have been studied in detail, and a 
map showing the distribution of the different types has been pre- 
pared by the Bureau of Soils.‘* The area mapped comprises about 


"Carter, W. IT, )iJr., and. Kerr, J. A., Soil survey of Lehigh County, Pa.: U. 8S. Dept. 
Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Operations, 1912, pp. 109-153, map, 1914. 


164 


one-third of the AUNentown quadrangle. The map shows 32 different 
soil types, and 28 of them appear in the part of Lehigh County 
that is included in the ANentown quadrangle. In the absence of 
any detailed map of the greater part of the quadrangle the soils 
will be discussed in connection with the different kinds of rocks 
from which they have been produced, and only the more widespread 
soils will be described. 

Ordovican shales and slates.—The belt of dark-colored shales and 
slates that underlies the northwestern portion of the quadrangle, 
north of a line drawn from Nazareth through Bath to Siegfried, 
is marked by soils that show little variation. The type known as 
the Berks shale loam is the most abundant in ue area and is de- 
scribed by Carter and Kerr® as follows: 


The soil of the Berks shale loam is a light-brown to yellowish-brown silt loam 
about 8 inches deep. The subsoil is a yellow silty clay loam which grades down- 
ward into a yellow friable silty clay. Large quantities of shale or weathered 
slate chips, with some fragments several inches in width, are scattered over the 
surface and disseminated throughout the soil section. The shale fragments are soft 
and. easily broken, and where cultivation has been carried on for many years they 
have been reduced to small particles. A mass of weathered shale is generally en- 
countered within 24 inches of the surface. On some of the slopes this shaly layer 
oecurs at a depth of 8 or 12 inches, while in the comparatively inextensive level 
areas it may not be reached at less than 30 to 36 inches. The weathered frag- 
ments vary from yellow or grayish yellow to olive or brown, while the less weathered 
fragments of the substratum are more bluish black in color. 


On“many of the higher ridges irregular and flat sandstone friemente a few inches 
across are often encountered on the surface and throughout the soil section. * * * 
In some places numerous fragments of quartz are found on the surface. * * * 


The drainage throughout the type is good. Owing to the slope, water does not 
stand on the surface, while the shale fragments in the soil and subsoil permit the 
rapid percolation of soil wajter. Where the subsoil is a mass of shale fragments, 
as it is throughout a large part of the type, the soil is droughty, and crops suffer 
during dry seasons. Where the shale has weathered more deeply the droughty na- 
ture of the soil is less marked. With moderate care the surface does not erode 
baidly, and few of the farms include gullied slopes. This is doubtless due to the 
fact that the mass of small shale fragments keeps the soil from washing badly, ex- 
cept under very adverse conditions. 


A large part of this type is in cultivation, though many small areas are still 
forested with the original growth of chestnut and oak. In the timbered areas the 
surface soil has a more yellowish color, but after cultivation it becomes dérxer. 


The type is well adapted to general farming, and during favorable seasons good 
yields are secured. In very dry seasons the. yields are low. Consequently crop 
yields vary considerably, depending on the rainfall.” The productiveness of the soil 
depends largely on its depth. On the steep slopes and tops of the sharper ridges, — 
where the shale mass is near the surface, the crop yields are much lower and less 
certain than on the gentler slopes and gently rolling tops of broad ridges, where 
the soil is deeper. * * The land is easily cultivated under all conditions of 
moisture, and since it warms up quickly and responds readily to good treatment, 
it is considered desirable land. The farm implements and. buildings indicate a 
general condition of prosperity. 


The general farm erops are grown on this soil, though a specialty is made of 
producing Irish potatoes, to which the soil is particularly adapted. Individual 
plantings of this crop range from a few acres to 40 or 50 acres. The potatoes are 
grown largely in conjunction with other general crops. By the liberal use of 
stable manure and commercial fertilizers 200 to 250 bushels per acre of potatoes 
of excellent quality are produced. Some farmers, however, do not use commercial 
fertilizer but zet good results with applications of barnyard manure. Corn pro- 


™T5Idem, pp. 141-142. 


8 


165 


duces 20 to 70 bushels, wheat 15 to 80 bushels, oats 20 to 50 bushels, rye 15 to 25 


bushels, and hay 1 ton to 14 tons per acre. In some of the more rolling sections 
little wheat is grown on this type, and rye takes its place to a large extent. Oats 
do well only on the deeper phases of the soil in good seasons. In dry seasons, in 
areas where the shale is near the surface, the yield is very light. There are some 
exeellent fields of alfalfa on the type. About three cuttings per year are secured, 
with a yield of one-half ton to a ton per cutting. Some buckwheat is grown, with 


fair results. 

Limestone valleys.—Throughout the limestone valleys the soils are 
brown to reddish-brown and consist of loam and clay derived from 
the underlying limestones with the addition of carbonaceous material 
from decayed vegetation. The soil differs greatly in thickness in dif- 
ferent localities. On level uplands the limestone comes to the sur- 
face in places, but elsewhere it is deeply buried. Though the soils 
that overlie the limestones mainly represent the insoluble material 
left after the soluble material in the limestones has been removed by 
solution, yet the soil is not strictly residual, for it has been disturbed 
by the glacial ice sheet that once passed over this area. The glacier 
introduced much foreign material, consisting of well-rounded pebbles, 
cobbles, and boulders of fine sandstones and quartzites, which in 
places are so numerous that they must be gathered from the soil. 
Large piles of these boulders can be seen in many places along the 
fences dividing the fields. Though these stones are numerous enough 
in certain regions to require their removal they are almost entirely 
absent in many places. 

The soil type most widely distributed in the limestone valleys is the 
Hagerstown loam, as described in the report on the soil survey of 
Lehigh County.”° Its adaptabilities are given as follows :— 

The Hagerstown loam is utilized almost entirely for general farming. It is 
considered the strongest and most productive upland soil in the county, and the 
general farm improvements indicate that it is the most valuable type. The original 
forest growth, consisting largely of white oak, has been cleared away, and prac- 
tically all of the land is cultivated. The principal crops grown are corn, oats, 
wheat, some hay, and in certain sections potatoes. Dajrying is also practiced to 
some extent. . Corn produces 40 to 90 bushels per acre, averaging 50 to 60 bushels, 
oats 30 to 60 bushels, with an average of about 50 bushels, and wheat 20 to 35 
bushels, probably averaging about 25 bushels per acre. From 14 to 2 tons of hay 
per acre are produced. Rye is grown to a slight extent, yields ranging from 15 to 
25 bushels per acre. Potatoes are grown for market in some sections and produce 


with fertilization 150 to 250 bushels and possibly more per acre. A small amount 
of alfalfa is grown, producing one-half ton to a ton per cutting, with three cut- 


tings a season. 
Cambrian quartzite and pre-Cambrian gneisses.—The report on tlre 
soil survey of Lehigh County differentiates the soils of the quartzite 
and gneisses into several types, all of which are, however, decidedly 
stony and only locally suited for cultivation. The type designated 
Chester stony loam is the most common and is fairly characteristic 
of all the soils formed from these rocks. It is described as follows :7* 
The Chester stony loam is a brown or yellowish-brown loam or heavy Joai, 


underlain at a depth of 5 to 8 inches by a yellow gritty clay loam or crumbly clay. 
In some plaices the soil is sandy or decidedly gritty. The subsoil occasionally has 


— 





gomarter, Wi. lnmar and Kerr; J. A:, op. cit., pp. 136-137. 
77Tdem, pp. 126-127. 


166 


a slight reddish tinge, and in places it is reddish yellow. Fragments of the gneiss 
and granite parent rock, together with fragments of quartzite from associated beds, 
are present on the surface and in the soil body in amounts sufficiently large to 
give the soil a decidedly stony character. On the steeper slopes the parent bed- 
rock is near the surface... Ordinarily the land can not be satisfactorily cultivated 
until many of the stones are removed. Masses of rocks several feet in diameter 
are often encountered in the forested areas and oceasionally in cultivated fields.* * * 


The topography of this type is hilly to broken, and in many places the slopes 
are very steep and stony, in some cases being too steep for cultivation. Drainage 
is good throughout all parts of the Chester stony loam. The soil is fairly retentive 
of moisture. 


The greater part of the type is forested with chestnut and oak, with some 
birch, hickory, and poplar. However, some of it bas been cleared of timber and 
the larger stones, so that the land can be cultivated.* * * ‘This land could prob- 


ably be utilized to better advantage for fruit, especially apples, than for the pro- 
duction of farm crops. 


Triassic conglomerates——The hill between Spring Valley and 
Fairmount, included within Lehigh, Northampton, and Bucks coun- 
ties, and a small area at the edge of the quadrangle southeast of 
Limeport possess types of soil distinct from any other found in the 
quadrangle. The principal soil type is called the Penn stony loam, 
which is described as follows in the report on the soil survey of 
Lehigh County: 


The surface soil of the Penn stony loam to an average depth of about 8S inehes 
is an Indian-red mellow silt loam. ‘The subsoil is an Indian-red clay. Sandstone 
and some light-colored quartzite fragments are present in quantities sufficient to 
interfere with cutivation. Many of the sandstone fragments have an Indian-red 
color. The stones on the surface are generally small, being less than 2 inehes in 
diameter, but some of the fragments are several inches through. In preparing the 
land for cultivation many of these stones have been removed and piled along the 
feneesac* ae °* 


The Penn stony loam is well drained, and notwithstanding the steep slopes it 
does not suffer from erosion. : 

A large part of the type is in cultivation, though the greater part of the larger 
area in the extreme southeastern corner of the county remains forested with chest- 
nut and oak. The land from which the larger stones have been removed is quite 
productive, and good yields of the general farm crops are secured. Corn produces 20 
to 50 bushels, oats 20 to 40 bushels, wheat 12 to 20 bushels, and timothy and clover 
about 1 ton per acre. The yields are slightly better on the less stony soil, where 
the land has been put in.a good state of cultivation. 

The soil is adapted to peaches, and there «re some good orchards on the type 
which give excellent results. The trees are not injured by frost, being on the hign 
ridges. Apples, plums, pears, cherries, small fruits, and berries do fairly well. 


Triassic shales—The Triassic shales of the southeastern corner of 
the quadrangle produce soils that are mainly red but in places 
brown, depending upon the character of the rocks from which they 
have been derived. In the report on the soil survey of Lehigh Coun- 
ty the:most abundant soil of these shales in the Allentown quad- 
rangle is called the Penn shale loam and is described as follows: 

The surface soil of Penn shale loam is an Indian-red to chocolate-brown silt 


loam, extending to an ¢jverage depth of about 8 inches. The subsoil is an Indian- 
red clay or silty clay loam which quickly grades into silty clay. Small fragments of 





78Idem, p. 180. 
79Tdem, pp. 130-131. 


eo aie 


Triassic shale are abundant over the surface and throughout the soil. In some 
places bedrock of «n Indian-red shale is encountered within the 3-foot section. On 
the steeper slopes the rock is near the surface, but on the more gentle slopes it may 
not be encountered, though the lower subsoil is often a mass of weathered shale 
fragments. As a rule the shale content increases with depth. The soil is easily 
cultivated, except when quite wet. Clods sometimes form, but may be broken with- 
out difficulty. * *.* 


The type has an undulating to rolling topography and is dissected by a number 
of small streams. ‘The slopes are gentle to fairly steep. Surface drainage is good, 
and erosion sometimes occurs, but where care is taken in the management of the 
soil this is not excessive. The soil is quite droughty, as the shale materis] makes 
a porous subsoil which permits the rapid percolation of water. Consequently in 
seasons of dry weather crops suffer greatly on this type. In years of normal rain- 
fall good yields are secured. 


The Penn shale loam is a; productive soil, and practically all the type is culti- 
vated. It is devoted to the staple crops of the section, including corn, oats, wheat, 
rye, timothy, clover, and some potatoes. In favorable seasons corn produces 30 to 
60 bushels, potatoes 100 to 150 bushels, oats 80 to 50 bushels, wheat 15 to 20 
bushels, and hay 1 ton to 14 tons per acre. Apples, peaches, and small fruits do 
well on this soil. The type is well adapted to the production of vegetables, which 
are grown in home gardens for local use. 


Alluvial soils—Along Lehigh River there are several areas of 
alluvial soils called the Schuylkill fine sandy loam in the report on 
the soil survey of Lehigh County. The type is described as fol- 
lows :°° 


The surface soil of the Schuylkill fine sandy loam is a brown to black fine sandy 
loam. It is 10 to 14 inches deep and contains a high percentage of fine coal par- 
ticles, brought from the coal fields by the Lehigh River. The subsoil is a brown to 
buff friable fine sandy loam to fine sandy clay. Near the river the coal particles 
are present in the soil and subsoil in quantities sufficient to give the soil a black 
color and a light, fluffy feel. Farther back from the stream the coal particles are 
not abundant in some places, and the color of the soil and subsoil is brown. * * * 
It occupies very narrow strips of first-bottom lands along the Lehigh River and a 
number of small islands. 

All of the type is subject to overflow, being only a few feet above the river at 
normal stages. This type constitutes practically .all of the first-bottom or overflow 
land along the Lehigh River, and owes its origin to sediment deposited by that 
peream;).* * * 

The surface is level, but drainage is good, as the soil material is underlain by 
beds of gravel which permit the rapid downward movement of soil wajter. Over- 
flows are common but seldom occur during crop seasons, * * * 

Corn, oats, and wheat are grown, but the greater part of the type is utilized for 
truck farming. All kinds of vegetables are grown with success, and the general 
farm crops give fair returns. Apples do well on the type where the coal particles 
are not abundant. The productiveness of the land seems to be proportional to 
the amount of coal particles present, those areas in which the soil is composed al- 
most entirely of this material being very poor. Where little of the coal is present 
the land is quite productive, and is especiajly adapted to vegetables. - 


Triassic diabase.—In the southeast corner of the quadrangle are 
small areas of Triassic diabase that furnish typical soils. The soil 
is thin and consists of a rather impervious clay in which are numer- 
ous large rounded boulders of disintegration. The soils are poorly 
drained, and for this reason and also because of the presence of so 
many boulders few of these areas are cultivated. They are mainly 
covered with forest. 


80Idem, p. 147. 


168 


WATER RESOURCES. 
SURFACE WATERS. 


Stream Flow. 


A record of the flow of Lehigh River at Bethlehem has been ob- 
tained in cooperation with the Water Supply Commission of Penn- 
svlvania and the Civil Engineering School of Lehigh University 
during the periods September 22, 1902, to February 138, 1905, and 
April 26, 1909, to September 30, 1914. The gaging station is at the 
New Street Bridge, which connects Bethlehem and South Bethlehem. 

The following table shows the discharge in second-feet for each 
complete month and year and the maximum and minimum days dur- 
ing each period or year. 


Monthly discharge in second-feet of Lehigh Rwer at Bethlehem, for 1902-1905 and 
1909-191}. 


[Drainage area, 1,235 square miles. ] 






































Month | 1902 1903 | 1904 1905 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 
—|———— — ed a 
: | 

Upebahueeneay Wy sys | ee a 12.900) 1, * 15940 Sh s5 ycb0il eee 2,820 |- 2,680 | 1,590 | 4,390 1,889 
Bébriary. eects ss fee ees ed 160") (2, 220) ol ee eee | 2,520 | 1,850 | 1,920 | 1,640 2,360 
Marche ee oe eae 5, 090-1) 5, 04.0 4) Seeceeam eeeee 4,550 | 1,890 | 5,400 | 5,200: 3,220 
April gt esse = oe eee 4,800 |. 3,270 | cer eee ee gerd | 3,720°| 3,220 | 4,390 | 5,240 4,130 
Mayer ee. ae = 1,200) 15240 aes 3,360 | 2,700 | 1,220 | 2,850} 2,800 2,540 
JUNG yes eee fed ee 1,960.| 1,600 4p 4 oe 1,410 | 2,040 | 2,440 / 1,000} 1,110 895 
Tul y eee eee ee | LOT: -) el 270 eee 785 704 909 572 721 1,520 
AuUcUst Sees 2 hee ce 070 L110 4) eeeeere 478 428 | 1,180 698 538 981 
September wets. 1e2c--<-- s 1,500 |'.1,08))) ue 444 512 | 2,210 | 1,820 63 ~ 492 
OcbOber ares] ASSO Ae aoe (20. | elo Ol 424 308 3,110}. 1, '7105|) 41.4200 | eee 
November _------- IO40 Wott 330 4) 1,500 se aes 370 629 | 2,240 | ° 2,200 1 2180) eee 
December —_------ A104 T8701 ee0: || zeae 1,170 749. | 2,280. | 2,840] F, SoOe eee 
Thee Weatceses=se ESS fh iy CO alle ALS OOO See eee ene are eee 1,800 |’ 2,060 | 2.170) 2) 3205) =e _ 
Maximum day ---| 26,800 | 25,800 | 20,000 |-------- 9,540 | 28,4009 | 9,880 | 21,900 | 27,500 | 10,°0) 
Minimum day --| 1,100 | 605 aiota se ifuetiee ce eer 250 160 384, 321 349 293 

















Water Power. 


The streams of the quadrangle furnish considerable power, part 
of which has been utilized since early settlement. A mill run by 
water power was built in 1738 near the mouth of Saucon Creek, and 
scores of grist, saw, paint, powder, and paper mills have utilized 
power developed on the smaller streams. Some of the streams, like 
the Monocacy, are dry in parts of their courses for weeks. This 
lack of water has been the chief cause of the abandonment of many 
small mills, and at present less use than formerly is made of the 
streams. 

The first waterway improvements on Lehigh River were made for 
the purpose of facilitating transportation of anthracite from Mauch 


169 


Chunk to Philadelphia by Lehigh and Delaware rivers, and the dams 
thus constructed later became the means of developing water power. 
In 1818 and 1819 the Lehigh Navigation Co. constructed 37 small 
wing dams and 13 cross dams along Lehigh River between Mauch 
Chunk and Easton. In 1820 the Lehigh Navigation Co. and the 
Lehigh Coal Co. united as the Lehigh Navigation & Coal Co., and 
in the following year the name was changed to the Lehigh Coal & 
Navigation Co. This company is now one of the most important 
coal and transportation companies of eastern Pennsylvania. A 
canal along Lehigh River was completed in 1829, and a canal along 
Delaware River below Easton was completed in 1831. Since then 
this canal system has been much used in the transportation of coal 
from the anthracite regions to Philadelphia and intermediate points. 
A flood in 1841 destroyed almost all the improvements on the Le- 
high, but they were soon restored. The diversion dams in Lehigh 
River have become useful sources of water for power for several mills 
of different kinds along the canal. 


Quality of surface waters. 


With the exception of a few short branches all the streams flow 
through thickly inhabited farming or manufacturing districts and 
are consequently liable to pollution. The city of Bethlehem is the 
only municipality that obtains water for domestic use from any 
streams in the quadrangle, and this supply is purified by filtration. 
Farmers haul water from near-by streams for household use only 
during periods of drought. The Bethlehem Steel Co. and the Beth- 
lehem Coke Co. pump water from Lehigh River and filter it to re 
move materials in suspension before it is used in boilers. 


Lehigh River above the Allentown quadrangle receives much pollu- 
tion as culm or fine waste from coal mines and as sulphur in the 
culm and waste coal, which is a source of acid. Part of the sulphur 
is oxidized to sulphuric acid and increases the proportion of sul- 
phate in the river water at the expense of the carbonate. The in- 
jury by culm is not so great as formerly because little low-grade 
coal goes to the dumps and because the waste is now extensively 
utilized in filling old workings by flushing. But the sulphur still 
markedly affects the composition of the water of Lehigh River. 


Samples of water were collected daily and analyzed as ten-day com- 
posites by the United States Geological Survey from Lehigh River 
at Bethlehem during 1906 and 1907, and the analyses are summarized 
in the accompanying table. The samples were collected from the 
intake of the Bethlehem City Water Co. opposite Calypso Island 
above the entrance of Monocacy Creek. 


170 
Average, maximum, and minimum conditions of the water of Lehigh River at 
Bethlehem from Sept. 11, 1906, to Sept. 26, 1907, inclusive. 


[R. LB. Dole, M. G. Roberts, Chase Palmer, and W. D. Collins, analysts] 
































Parts per million. Percentage 

Constituents. HH ——— of average 

Aver- Maxi- Mini- anhydrous 

age mum. mum. residue. 
Turbidity 222 eee ee ee ee eee 14 55 ]l. eee ee 
Suspended@matter 2-2 sss Bea eee 21 107 4.8. ,|-eesssesees: 
OGCocdhcent: of fineness 5222682 eee 2.46]. 17.00 SBG3| ae Se ee, 
Total. irom ( (ie) (2 See ee ee ee eee 1D, 3.2 4 NAB eS 
Silica “USiOa) 8 Soe oe Sa ee 5 Se SoS) la 4.0 9.4 
TPO CNG). (20 2 So ae ie ee ee, ee. .10 ool .09 wine 
Galeciuma' Oa)2 22 =. a ee ee 14 20. 7.6 15.0 
Magnesium: (MS): c2c22 5 es ee 5.7 fy; 1.6 : 6.1 
Sodium: (Na) -<2:--42045, 5 eset ee eee ee 6.4] 15 5.8 { 6.8 
Potasstam(K) &5,. Se oe eee 1.45 ™ ita” fe 1.5 
Carbonate wvadicle., (CO8)o 2 ea ee 0 4.8 0. | 7A | 
Bicarbonate radicle.’ (HCOs)- 22223 ee eee 40 57 ay ho eee, Sa od 
Sulphate radicle 80%) (iocscadiageceu) Rea / 30 s? 15 4 32.2 
Nitrate -radicle ' (NOs) @ 29 ee eres oF 1.8 1.9 2.4 
Chlorine: 7C Ol) 252 eae Soe ee eee 4.9 5.8 Py, 5.3 
Dissolved solids (20 et eee eee eee 95 174 48 at a eee 











medal analyses publichedt in U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 236, p. 70, 1909. 

The effect of acid mine waste on the water of Lehigh River is 
clearly shown by the predominance of sulphate over carbonate, for 
this undoubtedly would be a calcium carbonate water if the carbon- 
ate normally present had not been partly decomposed and replaced 
by sulphuric acid. Fortunately the normal alkalinity of the stream 
above Bethlehem is more than sufficient to react with the acid 
in the mine waste, and consequently the water at and below that 
point is alkaline, though its relative proportion of sulphate is ab- 
normal. In a general way the content of dissolved matter during 
the sampling period was inversely proportional to the gage height; 
this unusual regularity is probably due to the influx of a relatively 
constant quantity of strong mine drainage into a fluctuating stream. 
No apparent relation existed between content of suspended matter 
and gage height. The analyses represent a calcium sulphate water 
that is low in mineral content and that has an average hardness of 
58 parts per million. The content of scale-forming constituents 
ranges from 30 to 85 parts and averages 60 parts per million; the 
water would form in boilers a small amount of hard scale, but it 
would not foam in the boilers or corrode them, and the scale could 
be rendered softer by addition of a small amount of soda ash. 

Daily tests of the hardness and alkalinity of the river water at 
Bethlehem from. February, 1915, to January, 1914, by R. J. Wysor, 
formerly chief chemist of the Bethlehem Steel Co., indicate that to- 
tal hardness as CaCO, ranged from 29 to 120 parts per million, and 
averaged 66 parts, and alkalinity as CaCO, ranged from 24 to 77 
parts and averaged 40 parts. The hardness is roughly in inverse 
proportion to the river stage, but the relation is very irregular. 


171 


The accompanying table of mineral analyses shows that the water 
of Little Lehigh River and of Jordan, Monocacy, and Saucon creeks 
contains more dissolved mineral matter than that of Lehigh River 
or the canal. The creeks flow through limestone areas, whereas the 
Lehigh receives the greater part of its water from areas of less 
soluble rocks, so that this difference is readily explained. The 
sample of water from the canal was collected at Bethlehem, and the 
canal is fed from Lehigh River at the Allentown dam; consequently 
its water is softer than that of the Lehigh at Bethlehem, as the 
river receives above Bethlehem several hard waters. 


Mineral analyses of the water of Leliigh River and its tributaries. 


[Parts per million; all analyses except second by R. J. Wysor.] 








| Canal | Lehigh | Lehigh | Little 

















/ at | River at | Rivera Lehigh | Jordan | Monoe- | Saucon 
| Bethle- | Hoken- | Bethle River. Creek. acy. Creek. 
hem. j|dauqua.1! hem. 
Dates of collection ______--- ARS 20g. etl Jan. 1913-| Jan. 29, | Jan. 29, | Jan. 29, | Jan. 29, 
1914+ |-------_-- Feb. 1914] Feb. 4, | Feb. 4, | Feb. 4, | Feb. 4, 
|} 1914 1914 1914 1914 
Number of analyses --_--_-- 1 1 12 2 o> Ce 9 
Biee, (ors) ----. ___---.. ae 3.8 7 5 5 Ti 6.5 8.0 | 8.5 
Tron (Fe) -------------------- 2.8 | 23 ae 1.0 1.1 1.2 2.0 
oS St 6:1 13 15 Pent 28 20 2 29 
Magnesium (Mg) ----------- 4.3 8 oy 13 8.8 12 10 
Sodium and potassium (Na- |---------- i 7.6 | 23 5.2 19 12 
+K 
Biearbonate radicle (HiCO:) 5.2 40 41 102 49 102 | 89 
Sulphate radicle (SOx) ----- 37 50 26 16 1G | 2) 30 
eilorma, (Ol)? ......-.--.----- 5.0 6 8.3 12 8.6 | 2.6 4.9 
Dissolved solids -_----------- S7 118 105 278 48 | 226 142 
Organic and volatile matter® ,._--__----|---------- 15 100 2 | ra 13 


Total hardness as CaCOx -. Betas hs e5s a 65 158 93 | 168N | 125 








1Analysis by Thomas Iron Co. 
2We203+AleO3. Water slightly acid. 
3Values approximate. 


GROUND WATER. 


Source. 


Ground water has been utilized in all parts of the quadrangle, 
and yet complete data in regard to its development are nct obtain- 
able, on account of the long period of time since the region was first 
settled. Many of the wells were dug more than 100 years ago, and 
the present owners or occupants of the land can not furnish any 
information in regard to their depth or material penetrated. The 
accompanying table gives a list of the principal wells of the quad- 
rangle and shows the geologic age of the strata from which they de- 
rive their supplies, together with other data. 

Of the water that falls on the region in the form of rain or snow 
part is evaporated, part runs off into the streams at once, and part 
sinks into the soil. The relative proportions of these three quanti- 


MG 


ties depends upon so many factors, such as the way in which the 
precipitation occurs, whether in heavy downpours or gentle rain, the 
temperature at the time of precipitation, the character of the 
eround, whether bare or covered with vegetation, whether soft or 
frozen, whether dry or saturated with water, and the slope of the 
surface that it is impossible to determine how much of the rainfall 
disappears into the earth to form the underground water. 

Throughout the great limestone belt of the Allentown quadrangle 
where the slopes are gentle, the soil loose through cultivation, and 
the underlying rocks porous or cavernous, doubtless half or more 
than half of the annual precipitation finds its way into the underly- 
ing rocks. In many places in this belt sink holes are well developed 
and there is no surface run-off. In the regions of shales and gneiss- 
es, on the other hand, where the rocks are less soluble, the slopes 
steeper, and the country less cultivated, the direct run-off probably 
exceeds the quantity of water passing into the earth. 

Part of the water that passes into the ground is drawn. to the 
surface later through capillarity and is evaporated, part is dis- 
charged by vegetation, part emerges along the slopes of the hills 
as seeps or springs, part probably continues its passage to the 
ocean by underground channels, and part remains practically stag- 
nant in the rocks. Though some of the deep-seated waters may 
originate a short distance beyond the confines of the quadrangle it 
is doubtful whether any large quantity of even the deepest waters 
has come from distant points. The rainfall of the region thus deter- 
mines the quantity of underground water available. As the rainfall 
of the whole quadrangle can be computed from the table given be- 
low, and the probable amount consumed annually can be estimated, 
it is clear that the ground water at present has not been fully util- 
ized. 


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LS OF ALLENTOWN QUADRANGLE. 


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WELLS IN CAMBRIAN AND 

















a 
Ss) gape 
| oa 
Location Owner of Well 5 rs) = 
= a 
fe) 
val A A 
Bt os | In 
ss pee) 1-300) 
1-14 miles north of Siegfried --.-------.. Borougit Obs pier itiet..-2a.2eee sees 1913 eet 8 
1-200 
Northampton. 2s) eee eee ae eee | Da -G. Dery) Silk= Mig: Cov” 2eainigee ae 6 
1-119 
Northampton): 2. saseebs bemalt ore nee Northampton Brewing Co. —---- 1902 240 4 
1, mile northeast of Catasauqua ------__ Georges ELOMOlg aa. biu- 230 e! oe 1909 225 6 
2 mile east of Catasauqua ------------ Borough” of "Oatasauqua, 22.2 22ee eee Ate 8 
; 240: 
Catasauqua sh Stes fase slob ope: Seen Oryetal ice: Co' hott <5. se 1914 107 8 
Gatasauqua ) 22 ee eee A. F. Kostenbader Co. ---------- 1903 | 205 8 
Oatas aqua. ©. saci ace eee Chas. L. Lehnert Brewery —-_-_--- 1904 204 6 
South Catasauqua . 2222-00. 228 ee a ed ee ee re Dah yee 
Mickley’s Pike 1 mile west of Fullerton Oscar “Henninger 2222222. eee 1911 125 6 
North “Allentown: 52222232 ee Jordan Silk Dyeing Co. 2_-=22-= 1914 100 8 
1 mile north of Allentown 22-2222 e Lehigh Suk Dyeing’ Co. 22 19138 229: 8 
Allentown y «pevecsneuc. hte eee eee Allentown: Iron Mfg. Cos 22 2oaee 1909 157 8 
Allentown-Adam’s,” [slé" 22522 eee eee Allentown Boat & Swimming Club | 1909 100 6 
Allentown tense See oe oe) es eee Arbogast-Bastian (Co...) 22 eee 1912 708 8 
Hast “Allentown. = t32222 2) ie ee eee National Silk Dyeing Co. 22 222 1910 125 6 
Allentown, Union’ Street.) eee G8. BY. Grames> & SOU. eee ee 1911 404 8 
Allentown, Jefferson and Lawrence City of Allentown 22.22.) 22.202) eee 
Streets. 
Aen COW the. 5 Sot os ee oe cee Horlacher Brewing Oo. ---------- §1890 270 e 
cnt | ; 11897 230 6 
AINCYVillempeat esas. cee 25 0 1 Nene eee ee eae Stuyvesant, Silk Mill --_-__--_-__. 1910 200 6 
Aineyyille a2 S23 = Ae eee eee eens vs Keystone Textile Co. __---2--_.__ 1910 255 6 
Hanns eee Bee se ee Ee ee ee eee Borough (of Jintaus¢ sae 1910 } 260 Ft 
825 10 
POUR TIS fate tere a oe er eee H. Kostenbader Brewing Co. ---! 1910 270 tea 
PUMA IS eee ee toe Se oe Mee ee Emus Silk \Covess2sso- 6 1915 125 6 
South Bethlehem, Fourth and _ Birch Lehigh Valley Cold Storage Co. en 200 4 
Streets. ‘| 1191.4 250 10 
South Bethlehem, Elm Street ----------- South Bethlehem Brewing Co. --_|------ * 163 8 
Ret hledi ern ie es See ae ee eee 3 Ae Borough of Bethlehem 2222.22 22222222 3007 aere 
Bet hiehery ita 2 2 aes ye ee ees Bethlebem' Silke Cowa2-- 22. Sa oae 1900 400 10 
Bethlehéin see oan, ern oe oer sees GLoman \ Bros sees ee a ee 1911 100 6 
~ vee ‘700 8 
1 mile north of Bethlehem --___---______ | Borough of Bethlehem —--_---_-___ if EAS: 750 6 
: {1915 | 1,013 | 12-8 
1 mile south of Shoenersville ____.---__ Hlarvey Fenstermacher ___-__-_-_- 1911 170 6 
12 miles northeast’ of Shoenersvilic __._.}| George Diefendorfer  ___._________- 1914 119 6 
12. mile south oreBbath, see) ee George . Danner ete = 2 ee 1914 161 6 
196 
13 miles southwest of Bath ----_--_---- Bath. Portland Cement Co. ----|--_-.- z0| 6 
250 
4 mile north of Farmersville ~__..____- | Robert: Person po oe eee 1912 191 6 
Farmersville+.c 1. ee ee ee 8 Wilson ; ATbomast )22s--6.2- 2 eee 1912 265 6 
= milesnorth of BUtztowureeeese oo. 8 ATson, 3MOSSeT gee a ee 1913 110 6 
Freemansbtirgd jp seca reer or oe Wi, “Weaver pies eee 1911 125 6 
2 mile southeast of Redington —______- | Emma: (Lerch 222s eee 1913 \ 262, 6 
180 6 
North 'Héllertown’;-_ secede cam John “Weaver, 2.42 ceee tee ee 1910 150 8 
Mountainville: 292 2 eee Salisbury" School... === see PIS. 1914 153 6 
Hellertown. (2.2 262222 Soe ee ee Hi Ea Myers-Park Hoteles. sane 1907 106 6 














1_Overflowed.  2—4,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. %—Overflows. 4—Overflowed 10 galtons 


\ 


TOWN QUADRANGLE. 


=~] 


qn 





ORDOVICIAN LIMESTONES 


Depth to prine- 
pal water suppl; 


70 


~~ 


Every 10 feet 
300 and 425 


ee a a 


180 
190 and 245 
Every: 20 Feet 


110 


48 and 130 | 


175, 200, & 220 


Ses we ee ae ee ee ee 


185 

140 and 220 
70 and 100 
115 


80. and 135 | 
130 


106 





a minute. 


whieh 


Depth below sur- 
to 
water rises 


face 














Supply per min- 





= 
co] 
vo 
q 
‘S 
ae eS General Remarks. 
SH a 
J a 
i ie oC | 
Air pump Hard | Pump of 100 gallons capacity failed to 
| lower water. 'l'wo wells gave combined 
fiow of 450 gallons per minute for a 
b | period. 
Air pump | Hard | No water in 500-foot well; 119-foot well 
F | at, south end of mill. 
Airpump | Hard} Used for brewing. 
Air pump Hard 
Air pump Hard | Supplies Catasauqua. 
Reciprocating | Hard |Distilled and used in manufacturing ice. 
pump | 
Air pump Hard | Used in brewing. 
Air pump Hard | Used in brewing. 
Se eee eke rg een ees Dry hole. 
Airpump | Hard 
Air pump Hard 
Air pump: Hard | Not thoroughly tested. Will pump more. 
Suction pump | ‘(Hard 
Air pump Hard | Alluvium 40 feet, then limestone. 
yo ee pe ee ey Hard | Struck quartzite at 600 feet then gneiss. 
eee ee | Hard | 
ee plea Siete Soe | Hard | A spring, part of city water supply. 
Steam pump |} Hard. Used in. brewing. 
Air pump Hard | Clay 160 feet, then limestone. 
Air pump Hard 
es eee. Hard | Borough water supply. 
Spee. eee eeu e\e | Sink hole, 280: feet of clay, then lime- 
stone: verv little water. 
eas Se tae ee Hard 
Air pump: Hard River fill and loose material, 175 feet. 
Air pump: Hiard | Used for brewing. 
pa deel ae abet oS Hiard | No longer used. 
Suction pump:| Hard 
Air pump Hard Clay 70 feet, then limestone 30 feet. 
| The 1,013-foot well has 12-inch casing to 
Air pump Hard | 650 feet and then 8 inch easing, 
Borough water supply. 
Air pump Hard 
Air pump Hard | Clay first 70 feet. 
Air pump Hard | Clay first 70 feet. 
Air pump Hard | Supply for cement plant 
Air pump Hard Not thoroughly tested. 
Air pump Hard | Not thoroughly tested. 
Air pump Hard | Clay first 35 feet- 
Air pump Hard | Clay first 92 feet. 
ALERT SH Cae phd Ch ape a | First well dry. 
Air pump: Hard | ; 
Air pump. All in glacial or residual material. 
Air pump Hard 
Rel SNR 34h NS Hard 























176 


WELLS OF ALLEN 


WELLS IN CAMBRIAN 





















































a 
£) | Sao 
o 
a a er 
Location Owner of Well 5 Oo | 
oO A pe 
e | ez 
| a | A 
oe Se Te ee ee — 7 oS 
Ft. In 
South Allentown? (222s 2s ttesece Borough of South Allentown ____| 1914 Cr aes 
176 tees 
1 mile south of Rittersville ---.---=--:-- Allentown State Hospital -_----_- 1913 160 8 
41 mile west: of Rittersville .--_._--—=---- Lehigh Valley Traction Co. ----| 1909 230 6 
Beldersville @2.. cclcs tists ate aes ober’) Melkerset-s 0 cco. ste eee 19110 208 6 
® mile south of Mountainville __------_- Waldheim Camp: Association _---- 1912 825 8 
WELLS IN PRE- 
; 770 
1 mile south of Rittersville ~.----------- Allentown State Hospital] __-_--__|__-__- 700 8 
270 
® mile south of Rittersville ------------ Allentown Foundry-Hardware Co. | 1913 oe 6 
120 
South Allentown or Aineyville --------- Be (Miller®™ 22) See 1909 268 8 
187 8 
Summit} Lawn 11 miles south of Moun- aura, Kuntz eeses eee eee 1912 186 6 
tainville. : 
Summit Lawn 14 miles south of Moun- Ri. P,. ‘Stevens Bs 2 eee 1911 93 6 
tainville. r : 
+ mMilassouth of mans os2-.2s.2c...-=: Mountain Water Co. 72 neo 1910 { 200 8 
120 8 
a milepeaste Of) MIMAUS. 25-52 0525. lene Boroughs of@iinialisw..] eee nee 1909 700 6 
WELLS IN TRIASSIC 
QODDEIBUUTS pee oot aoa ate eee Gabriel. Hosiery Co7.2- 3 =. ee 1909 160 | 8 
Coonpersbunrcewee sss. 2 222 ee eee Borough of Coopersburg -------- 1910 300 8 
WELLS. IN ORDOVICIAN 
| 
13 miles northwest of Bath ------------. Borough Rots Bath 2 2s es 1914 225 4 
4 1—_QOverflowed. 2—4,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. %—Overflows. ‘4—Overtlowed 10 gallons 


17 


(7 


TOWN QUADRANGLE—Continued. 


——————— 


SANDSTONES AND QUARTZITES. 




















—_—_—. 









































on | 2 on 
om S as os 
ae aa | & 
AG Bn a 5 
o oO A -= 
os ores fo = 
Po QP Bo Remarks. 
os] o ima] 
== <= lee Os | = 
= 2S] a pone = 
BS ese| 82 | 55 E 
A a Racca Rp va Fo | +2 Dag | Ce 
| : 
Gh re 2 225. Air pump _( Medium) Supplies borough. 
1 Vid = aa 1504 Soft 
ain ee 80—100 Air pump Soft | Used at dairy house. 
180—215 82 50 Airpump = Soft ; 
190 oO 15 Airpump | Soft | In quartzite, glacial till, 170 feet. 
300 60 DOs sees A ee ie | Soft | Loose surface material 90 feet. 
CAMBRIAN GNEISSES 
| | 
Ss 90 |85 to 80} Air pump Hard | 770-foot and 270-foot wells connected. 
LoS } 4 Air pump Soft | Practically dry holes. 
ia, Sera 30 Air pump Soft | Drilled to supply borough. 
SOS eee 70 
175 25 50 Air pump: Soft 
90 45 / 50 Air pump Soft 
tl ds es oo 35]|----------------| Soft | Sandstone on surface, but water-bearing 
cit hs ee 20) lesen ee eae peds consist of gneiss. 
Neate fee Wer yas ee ae eo ee Soft | Well abandoned. 
small | 
SHALES AND SANDSTONES. 
75 and 135 | 8 | TNO Ul cy 2s ER Ne 2 eae) (ee Seer Red Shale to 100 feet then red sandstone. 
140 and 210 | 35 | 100 ATE DUI ees Supplies borough in summer. 
SHALES AND SLATES. 
| | 
ee es 1h)_-------| Overflowed | Soft | Part of borough supply. 


pe through pipe | 
| sunk 20 feet 
| underground 








a minute. 


128 


178 


As the amount of precipitation determines the quantity of under- 
ground water, the following rainfall statistics for Bethlehem, which 
is near the center of the quadrangle, are included. 


Average rainfall at Bethlehem, Pa. 








Inches Inches 

HNUAYY Vacca es: 3.64 PUTA Y tices el nto eee 4.64 
BSbriarvic . sucks: 5 ois AULUSE. oh ss oe) ree 4.35 
SET gi) OP cog i Oe 3.80 September... aise 3.39 
NEDO whe ots vitery ces 2.86 GlMetober : ii. «seem y 3.20 
MUCK OS otae: ieee arabe Ge 3.93 November‘: 3.40 
thraTIGms tees alte feb 4.41 December 22a 3.48 

44.83 

Occurrence. 


As the conditions under which ground water occurs in the rocks 
depend largely upon the character of the rocks at or near the sur- 
face it is advisable to discuss separately the ground-water resources 
of the areas of Ordovician shales and slates, Cambrian and Ordovic- 
ian limestones, Cambrian sandstones and quartzites, pre-Cambrian 
gneisses, and Triassic shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. They 
are discussed in the order named, which is the general order in 
which the rocks appear at the surface from north to south across 
the quadrangle. Hach division occurs in a more or less regular band 
that crosses the quadrangle from nertheast to southwest. (See 
areal geology map, Pl. II). 


Water in the Ordovician shales and slates. 


North of a line between Siegfried and Nazareth the rocks consist 
almost entirely of shales and slates, with a few lenses of interbedded 
limestones in the vicinity of Seemsville and some sandstone strata 
near Kreidersville. Though the usual dip of the strata is northwest 
the rocks have been so closely folded in many places that they dip 
in all directions. Where the beds have been jointed and faulted 
great veins of quartz and calcite have been formed. 

Ag these rocks are relatively impervious little water percolates 
through them except in the joints and between the beds of the 
shale or along the cleavage planes of the slate. These openings are 
very narrow, and ag the shales are almost insoluble there has been 
little enlargement of them by the moving water. The result is a 
very slow downward movement of the water and the almost complete 
absence of large underground streams such as characterize the lime- 
stone areas. 


179 


Near the surface the shales and slates become greatly disintegrated 
through the action of frost, so that much of the rain water percol- 
ates a short distance into the rocks. Consequently wells sunk into 
these rocks are practically assured of water at moderate depth, al- 
though not in large quantities. As the wells usually receive seepage 
at several depths the yield is more or less CORT SULA Le with the 
depth and diameter of the well. 

Within the slate belt of the Allentown quadrangle there are no 
industries that require large amounts of water, and consequently 
no deep wells have been sunk. For farm use wells sunk to a depth 
of 20 feet in some places supply sufficient water, but in other places 
they must be sunk 60 or 100 feet. In the vicinity of Dannersville 
the wells range in depth from 20 to 60 feet. In general it is neces- 
sary to go deeper on the uplands close to the deep, narrow valleys 
than farther back on the divides. 

About 4 miles north of Nazareth a 600-foot well that was drilled 
in the slate obtained a strong flow of water that rose to the surface. 
The drill probably broke into an open fissure caused by some dis- 
placement of the rocks, through which the water flowed in large 
volume. Other wells sunk to equal depths in the same vicinity 
might obtain only small amounts of water that would not rise to the 
surface. 

Along the slopes of the narrow valleys there is much seepage and 
in many places the water emerges as springs. Many of the inhabit- 
ants of the region obtain their entire water supply from springs. 
The Northampton County Almshouse, 1$ miles west of Nazareth, is 
supplied with water from several springs that issue from the slate 
half a mile north of the buildings. The water is collected in a reser- 
voir and piped to the buildings. The water-works were built in 1875. 
A well-known spring a short distance northwest of Nazareth Hall, 
Nazareth, and a few others near by supplied the town of Nazareth 
with water for nearly a century. These strong springs evidently 
reach the surface along well-defined fissures that were produced by 
earth movements and that extend to great depths. The water rises 
along them under artesian pressure. 

The water from the Ordovician shales and slates is of excellent 
quality. The insoluble character of the rocks permits little mineral- 
ization, and the slow filtration through the slates removes surface 
contamination. 


Water in the Cambrian and Ordovician limestones. 


Ground water in limestone regions flows mainly in well-defined 
open channels formed by solution along ordinary joints or bedding 
planes, and the surface water passes into these underground chan- 
nels.. With the exception of Monocacy Creek, which heads in the 


180 


slate region, surface streams are practically absent in the lime- 
stone belt east of Catasauqua and Weaversville. Count Zinzendorf 
in a letter dated March 15, 1748, described the region between Beth- 
lehem and Nazareth as “absolutely a desert without wood or water, 
and of such a nature that it never can be sold.” Another writer™ 
in 1799 said that “part of the road [between Bethlehem and Nazar- 
eth] runs through a tract of land, which is exclusively called the 
Dry Land, on account of its want of any creeks, rivulets, or springs 
above ground. It is however well settled; the inhabitants bring 
water for common use from the nearest spring or brook. This is 
often at the distance of one, and even two and three miles. Of late, 

however, prudent and able settlers have begun to dig wells, whereby 
the value of their lands is considerably enhanced.”’ 

As the water in the limestones is concentrated in definite channels 
one of these channels must be struck to obtain water, and the un- 
certainty of finding one of them has favored “water witching,” which 
is still practiced in many regions, although repeatedly shown to have 
no scientific basis and to be entirely unreliable. 

Some water is usually obtained at the contact between the loose 
residual and glacial loamy clay and the underlying compact lime- 
stones. Many wells 15 to 30 feet deep draw their supply from this 
horizon and obtain sufficient water for domestic use except in times 
of drought. The water in such wells is, however, easily polluted by 
surface drainage, and these wells are gradually being abandoned. 
In place of the abandoned shallow wells deep wells are sunk, or if 
these are not successful cisterns are used. In the region between 
Butztown and Tatamy probably more than half of the farmers de- 
pend on cistern water for household use, and cisterns are also ex- 
tensively used in other sections of the limestone areas except along 
permanent streams. 

Many deep wells have been bored in the limestones during the 
last few vears, and most of them have been successful. One ex- - 
perienced driller states that he obtained fair supplies of water at 
depths of about 200 feet in about 70 per cent of the wells he drilled 
in the limestones of this section. As shown in the table (pp. 174-177) 
some wells procure very large supplies, a few of them from several 
different horizons, vet a hole may be sunk within a few feet of a 
strong well and still be dry on account of the impervious character 
of the solid limestone. For this reason dry wells before being 
abandoned should be dynamited in order to shatter the surrounding 
rocks. As the rocks have been greatly broken by folding and fault- 
ing water may be obtained more readily from these limestones than 
from those in other regions that have been less subjected to stresses. 





81Ogden, J. C., Excursion into Bethlehem and Nazareth in 1799, pp. 41-42, Philadel- 
phia, 1805. 


181 


The water in most of the deep wells rises above the level at which 
it is struck, and it overflows from numerous wells, as shown in the 
~ table (pp. 176-179). In general the deep wells obtain water under 
the greatest pressure, but as no regularity exists locations where 
flowing wells can be obtained can not be predicted. 

Many springs are found in the limestone areas. Some of them 
are unusually strong, being underground streams that rise to the 
surface under artesian pressure. Some of them have been important 
sources of municipal water supply. The spring at Bethlehem that 
supplied the borough with water for nearly 170 years furnished more 
than 800 gallons a minute. Crystal Spring, the source of water 
supply for Allentown for many years, which yielded more than 4,000 
gallons a minute, and the springs along Lehigh River that supplied 
Hokendauqua are the best known. Christian Spring, 2 miles west 
of Nazareth, and Menges Spring, three-quarters of a mile northwest 
of Mountainville, are also well known. A large spring that emerges 
near Monocacy Creek 14 miles south of Hanoverville may be part 
of the creek which follows an underground course for a few miles 
instead of following the great bend of the creek past Brodhead. 
Crystal Cave, half a mile northeast of Hellertown, contains a stream 
of water that probably comes to the surface as seepage in low marshy 
land a short distance away. Numerous smaller springs in many 
places are drawn upon by the inhabitants of the region, and also 
furnish much water to the surface streams, many of which, such as 
the small stream that passes through Butztown and Middletown, 
are almost entirely dependent upon springs. 

Ali the springs of the region are affected by drought, and many 
disappear in summer, though the larger ones just mentioned have 
never been known to fail entirely. 

All the ground water of the limestone areas is hard ‘because of the 
mineral matter it dissolves in passing through the soluble rocks. 
The amount of material-in solution ranges within wide limits owing 
to the differences in distance through which the water has flowed, 
the length of time it has remained in contact with the rocks, and 
the relative solubility of the inclosing limestones. This water caus- 
es the formation of much scale in boilers. In drinking water the 
mineral matter, mainly calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonates, is 
not regarded as detrimental. Analysis i in the table of analyses 
(p. 189) shows the composition of a limestone water. 

The limestone waters are subject to contamination, as the areas 
are thickly settled and surface waters in many places find ready 
access to underground channels. Limestone waters near cities and 
towns, whether from wells or from springs, should be treated with 
hypochlorite of lime on account of the sewage that is continually 
poured into the underground channels and should be examined bac- 


182 


teriologically from time to time to ascertain the extent of contamina- 
tion. If wells are tightly cased for some distance into the solid 
rock the danger of surface contamination is lessened, but it is not 
entirely removed, as polluted waters may reach great depths through 
open fissures with practically no filtration. Doubtless a complete 
sanitary survey of the region would demonstrate that many of the 
sources are too badly polluted for safe use. 


Water in the Cambrian sandstones and quartzites. 


The band of sandstones and quartzites along the sides of the 
South Mountain has been prospected for water in few places, main- 
ly on account of the narrowness of its outcrop. The quantity of 
water encountered in the operation of the limonite iron mines in this 
belt of rocks between Emaus and Mountainville and in the narrow 
valley 14 miles southeast of Hellertown proves that these sandstones 
and quartzites contain much water. The water passes along joints 
and bedding planes or through the rocks themselves and is seldom 
concentrated in definite streams, except in places where the rocks 
have been broken and displaced by earth movements. The best place 
to procure water is at the contact between these rocks and the under- 
lying gneisses. The borough of Emaus drove a tunnel into the 
mountain, starting in the quartzite and passing into the gneiss. At 
the contact considerable water enters the tunnel, but the quantity 
is inadequate. The same contact 100 feet lower would probably 
have furnished a much larger supply. 

The best place to sink wells in these rocks is a short distance be- — 
yond the point where they disappear beneath the limestones. As 
the rocks near the mountain almost invariably dip steeply, the sand- ~ 
stones or quartzites are within a short distance carried beyond the 
depth at which they are available as sources of water. Springs are 
not numerous in these rocks, but there are some in places where the 
rocks have been shattered. 

The water from the Cambrian quartzites and sandstones is low in 
mineral content because of the insoluble character of the rocks with 
which it comes into contact, and it is uncontaminated because the 
slopes of the mountain are sparsely settled. 


8 
Water in the pre-Cambrian gneisses. 


The pre-Cambrian gneisses form the mountains in the southern 
half of the quadrangle. These regions are thinly settled on account 
of the steep slopes and the stony character of the soils, which are 
only locally suitable for cultivation. The rocks near the surface 
are greatly jointed and permit the entrance of water. As the depth 
increases the joint spaces become narrower and consequently the 


183 


water moves more slowly. Lines of seeps or springs furnish most 
of the residents of the region with ample supplies of water. Wells 
10 to 25 feet deep yield fair supplies. 

Half of the deep wells that have been bored have been failures. 
If water is not obtained within 200 feet it is generally regarded as 
useless to continue to lower levels. A few excellent wells have been 
obtained in the gneisses of the quadrangle, but most of them yielded 
only small quantities. The borough of Emaus bored a well to the 
depth of 700 feet in the gneiss but obtained no water except near 
the surface. 

The water in the gneiss contains little dissolved mineral matter, 
and when it is protected from local pollution it is very desirable. 
In a few places where pyrite is an abundant constituent of the 
enersses the water may contain iron. 

Camel’s Hump Spring, on the north slope of Quaker Hill, rises 
along a fault plane, but the water is derived entirely. from the 
eneiss. The water from this spring has long been marketed in the 
near-by towns. An analysis of it is given in the table of water 
analyses (p. 189.) 

In 1845 Dr. F. A. Oppelt established a “hydropathic asylum” in 
Bethlehem, where St. Luke’s Hospital is now located, which used 
the water from a fine spring that emerges along a fault plane be- 
tween the gneiss and the limestone. The establishment, which was 
known as “Oppelt’s Water-Cure,”’ was operated until 1875, when 
the property was sold to the trustees of St. Luke’s Hospital. It is 
said that over 3,000 people were treated in the institution. 

A hotel and resort was also run at Leuchauweki Springs, Bethle- 
hem, for many years. The water, which seems to come from the 
gneiss, is pure and wholesome. 


Water in the Triassic shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. 


The beds of Triassic rocks in the southeastern part of the Allen- 
town quadrangle are gently inclined and do not have sharp folds 
and faults, such as are characteristic of the limestones and Ordo- 
vician shales and slates. Water percolates slowly through the 
shales, following the narrow openings along joints and between the 
beds. When it reaches sandy beds the water tends to flow in them 
on account of their porous character. Small amounts of water can 
be obtained in most places in the shales, but where a sandy or con- 
glomeratic layer is penetrated a good supply is assured. The 
Coopersburg wells are the only deep ones in the region regarding 
which information could be obtained. Wells 15 to 35 feet deep sup- 
ply most of the water required for domestic use. 

The Triassic rocks are unlike the other rocks of the quadrangle 
in that they can be depended upon to furnish water at definite 


184 


horizons. The wells in any locality are approximately of equal 
depth, as they derive their water from the same bed or beds of 
nearly horizontal porous rock. There are no data to show how far 
these water-bearing beds extend, but the variable character of the 
Triassic rocks indicates that they underlie small areas, within which, 
however, they are well marked. 

Springs are rare, except along the contacts with other rocks, es- 
pecially the diabase, which is intruded within the sedimentary strata 
east of Coopersburg. 

The water of the Triassic rocks is of good quality on account of 
the insoluble character of the rocks and the filtering which the water 
undergoes as it percolates through them. 


Municipal Supplies. 


Allentown.—The water supply of Allentown is obtained from two 
springs. The chief source is Schantz’s Spring, about 5 miles from 
the city, in Lower Macungie Township, in the Slatington quad- 
rangle. Hard limestone water is pumped from this spring into 
the Allentown reservoir at the rate of 8,000,000 gallons a day 
against a head of 167 feet. Crystal Spring, at Jefferson and Law- 
rence streets, Allentown, is the other source. It is pumped against 
a head of 255 feet at a rated capacity of 4,000,000 gallons a day. 
The water is higher in chlorine than some others in the vicinity. 
The water is not filtered but is treated with chloride of lime. The 
character of the water of this spring is shown in the table (p. 189). 

A vast supply of water in the future is planned to be taken from 
Little Lehigh Creek. About 40,000,000 gallons a day can be pro- 
cured from this source without difficulty. The water is softer than 
that of Crystal Spring. It is proposed to filter this water for do- 
mestic and industrial use. 


Bath—The borough of Bath derives its water supply from two 
springs and a 225-foot well 1144 miles northwest of the borough 
limits. The well was bored in 1914 for an additional supply of 
water. It is 4 inches in diameter, and the water rises within 114 
feet of the surface. From a point 20 feet below the surface the 
water flows through a cross pipe to the reservoir, into which the 
water from the two springs also flows. The water from the springs 
and the well comes from the slates and is of excellent quality. Its 
character is shown in the table of analyses (p. 189). 


Bethlehem (north side of Lehigh River).—The first successful 
waterworks in Pennsylvania was established in 1754 at Bethlehem, 
when the water of a large spring on the east side of Monocacy Creek, 
back of the site of the present Hotel Bethlehem, was forced by means 
of water power developed by Monocacy Creek through wooden 
pipes to a tower between Community House and the Sisters’ House 


LSS 


and thence distributed throughout the borough. This spring con- 
tinued to supply practically all the water required for the borough 
until 1912. A 3800-foot well was then drilled between the spring 
and the creek, but the water was so badly contaminated by sewage 
that it could not be used. Water from a 390-foot well at the 
Bethlehem Silk Mill, half a mile farther north, was used to sup- 
plement the spring supply. The spring finally, however, became 
contaminated and had to be adandoned. At times it yielded 1,200,- 
000 gallons a day, and the 300-foot well furnished 460,000 gallons a 
day. | 

In 1912 Bethlehem began to use the water from two wells at II- 
lick’s Mill, on Monocacy Creek about 14 miles north of Bethlehem. 
These wells, which are 700 and 750 feet deep, overflow, but they 
must be pumped in order to obtain a sufficient supply. Together 
they yield 2,000,000 gallons a day. A third well, 1,018 feet deep, 
was completed on the same property just east of the creek in March, 
1915. Tests show it to have a capacity of 1,851 gallons a minute, 
or approximately 2,000,000 gallons a day. 


The water from the spring and the wells is hard. The wells 
throughout their depth were in limestone. As the limestones are 
cavernous and the region is thickly settled it is necessary to watch 
the water carefully and to make frequent bacteriologic examinations. 
It is, however, seldom necessary to add hypochlorite of lime, though 
equipment for that purpose has been installed. 


Bethlehem (south side of Lehigh River).—The South Bethlehem 
Gas & Water Co. built works in 1865, taking water from Lehigh 
River. The Mountain Water Co. was chartered in 18938 to supply 
water in Bethlehem Township from springs on the mountain near 
Seidersville. -The two companies united in 1894 under the name 
of the Bethlehem Consolidated Water Co., which sold its franchises 
and properties in 1903 to the Bethlehem City Water Co. The City 
of Bethlehem has recently purchased the company. It obtains its 
water from the two sources mentioned, and until recently it furnished 
water to Bethlehem (South side), Fountain Hill, Northampton 
Heights, Bethlehem (West side), Rittersville, East Allentown, and 
the State Hospital for the Insane at Rittersville. Its service is now 
limited to Bethlehem and Fountain Hill. Some houses still re- 
ceive spring water from the side of the mountain, where Tinsley 
Jeter built a reservoir in 1866 near Bishopthorpe School. Pipes 
were laid from this reservoir through several streets as far as 
Union Station. In 1872 the Cold Spring Water Co. laid pipes from 
springs on the side of the mountain near Delaware Avenue to a few 
residences on Fountain Hill. The Bethlehem Steel Co. has also a 
private supply from a spring on the side of the mountain. 


186 


The river supply of the City of Bethlehem is pumped from a dug 
well near the river to reservoirs on the side of the mountain above St. 
Luke’s Hospital. In sinking the well several flows of water were 
obtained from the quartzite beds that were penetrated. The well was 
sunk under the impression that water from Lehigh River would filter 
through the alluvial material and fill it. During that part of the 
year when the flow from the springs is greatest, however, about 
75 per cent of the water pumped is probably furnished by the springs, 
but during droughts the river must supply nearly all the water 
needed. The spring water is of excellent quality, as it contains 
little mineral matter in solution and is free from contami- 
nation. The river water, on the contrary, must be filtered on ac- 
count of the sewage poured into the river from the cities farther 
upstream. The acids from the waters of the coal mines along the 
upper course of the river are sufficient to destroy many of the bac- 
teria, although not all. 

Irom the well the water is pumped into a sedimentation reser- 
voir 420 by 220 feet and 21 feet deep, which has a capacity of 14,- 
000,000 gallons. It then passes through six preliminary filters and 
six open slow sand filters having a capacity of 4,000,000 gallons a 
day. The filtered-water reservoir holds. 5,000,000 gallons. The 
filtered water can be treated with hypochlorite of lime when that is 
necessary. Analyses of the water of Lehigh River are given in the 
table on pages 170-171. 

The spring supply, which comes from the springs of the Mountain 
Water Co., is piped to a masonry reservoir holding 300,000 gallons. 

Catasauqua.—The main part of Catasauqua was formerly supplied 
with water by the Clear Springs Water Co., but it is now supplied 
from two wells that have been drilled by the borough in limestone 
east of the town to depths of 240 and 220 feet respectively. An ex- 
cellent supply of hard water was encountered at these depths, the 
combined yield of the wells being 1,000 gallons a minute. 

Clear Springs Water Co.—The Clear Springs Water Co. has con- 
tracted to supply water to the boroughs of Siegfried, Northampton, 
Cementon, Coplay, Hokendauqua, North and West Catasauqua, and 
Fullerton. The company procures its water in Lehigh County from 
Liesenring Spring near Cementon, and Yellis Creek. Both sources 
are beyond the borders of the Allentown quadrangle. The spring 
is used to supply the town of Cementon only, and the water is dis- 
tributed by gravity. Yellis Creek is supplied largely by springs. 
It furnishes excellent soft water which is pumped into a reservoir 
at Spring Mill, 325 feet above the surrounding country. The sup- 
ply is purified by filtration through rapid sand filters. The average 
daily consumption is 1,000,000 gallons. In summer, when the sup- 
ply from Yellis Creek is insufficient, water is pumped from Lehigh 
River into the reservoir. 


li 


LF 8) 


lend 
4 


Coopersburg.—The borough of Coopersburg obtains its regular 
supply of water for domestic use from springs east of the village. 
As this source is insufficient during summer, a 300-foot well with a 
capacity of 100 gallons a minute was drilled in 1910. This well 
was drilled through red shale and red sandstone of Triassic age. 
The principal water-bearing beds were struck at 140 and 210 feet, 
and the water rises within 35 feet of the surface. The well is 8 
inches in diameter, and an air pump is used to force the water to 
the surface. This well, together with the spring supply, is suf- 
ficient for all purposes. 

Coplay.—Coplay is supplied with water for domestic and industrial 
use by the Clear Springs Water Co. of Catasauqua. 

Hast Allentown.—The borough of East Allentown was supplied 
with water by the Bethlehem City Water Co. until recently. It is 
now supplied by the City of Allentown 

Hmaus.—For many years the borough of Emaus obtained its water 
supply from a well near the Perkiomen Railroad, within the limestone 
area. After the water in this well became contaminated a spring 
on the side of the mountain was utilized. A tunnel that was run 
into the mountain passed through two shattered places in the 
eneiss, from which small amounts of water were obtained. Later a 
700-foot well was drilled near by. Loose material was penetrated 
to a depth of 120 feet, where a small amount of water was procured. 
The deeper drilling was in Cambrian sandstones and the underly- 
ing gneiss. AS samples were not carefully preserved the depth at 
which the drill apparently passed from the sandstone into the 
gneiss can not be stated, but apparently no water was found at the 
contact or in the gneiss below, and the well was abandoned. The 
borough now receives most of its water from a 325-foot well near 
the place where the water was originally obtained. The water ap- 
parently is uncontaminated, though it is high in mineral matter, 
as it comes from the limestone. The spring and the tunnel furnish 
part of the water, and this water from the sandstone and gneiss is 
of excellent quality. 


Fullerton.—The borough of Fullerton procures the greater part 
of its water from the Clear Springs Water Co. 


Hellertown.—TIwo springs furnish most of the water consumed 
by the residents of Hellertown, though several large artesian wells 
add to the supply. The springs, which are owned by the borough 
of Hellertown, are in the mountains southeast of the village. The 
water which emerges from the pre-Cambrian gneiss is soft and ex- 
cellent in quality. It flows into a 1,000,000-gallon reservoir that is 
inclosed by a high picket fence and is protected against POO 
by surface drainage. 


188 


During summer the reservoir frequently overflows; shortage oc- 
curs from October to January, however, and an option has been 
taken on two springs on the Koch property, 1 mile east of the res- 
ervoir. A pressure of 120 pounds to the square inch is maintained — 
by the present system. Recent tests of Eichelberger Spring as a 
source of additional water supply showed a flow of only 34,000 to 37,- 
000 gallons a day. 


Hokendauqua.—Hokendauqua receives its water from the reser- 
voir of the Clear Springs Water Co. 


Nazareth—The water supply of Nazareth is purchased from the 
Blue Mountain Consolidated Water Co., which obtains soft water 
of excellent quality from a small stream and two wells on the north 
side of Blue Mountain near Wind Gap. 


Northampton.—The borough of Northampton is supplied, by the 
Clear Springs Water Co. 


Northampton Heights——The former borough of Northampton 
Heights now a part of Bethlehem is supphed with water by the 
City of Bethlehem. 


Rittersville—Rittersvile now a part of Allentown is supplied 
with water by the City of Allentown. 


Siegfried—Three wells were drilled north of Siegfried in 1915 
in order to supply the borough. One is 300 feet deep, and the 
others are 200 feet deep; the principal water-bearing stratum was 
at 70 feet in each well. The wells are 8 inches in diameter and yield 
600 gallons a minute. Two of them yielded 450 gallons a minute 
during a prolonged test, and a 10-inch hole that was drilled near 
by later yielded much water. Despite these satisfactory results, 
the water supply is now purchased from the Clear Springs Water — 
Co., and the wells are held for emergency. f 


South Allentown and Aineyville—Two wells, which were drilled 
267 and 187 feet in gneiss in the rear of Miller’s hotel, South A1- 
lentown, yielded only 30 gallons and 70 gallons a minute respec- 
tively, but two wells drilled later by the borough through glacial drift 
and clay into limestone are more satisfactory. One is 225 feet and the 
other 176 feet deep. The principal water-bearing stratum was 
struck at 160 to 170 feet'in both wells. The larger well yields 324,- 
000 gallons and the smaller one 216,000 gallons a day. The level of 
the water is 137 feet below the surface. The water is raised from 
this depth into a 120,000-gallon standpipe. The chemical character 
of the water is shown by the analyses in the table (p. 189). 


West Catasauqua.—West Catasauqua is supplied by the Clear 
Springs Water Co. 


189 


Other towns.—Private wells 18 to 100 feet deep supply water to 
the residents of Butztown, Center Valley, Freemansburg, Lanark, 
and Pleasant Valley, though cistern water is extensively used in 
these localities. Wells at Butztown, Center Valley, and Lanark 
yield hard water from the limestone. Numerous springs furnish water 
for people in Spring Valley (Saucona) and vicinity, but no per- 
manent supply for domestic use is available in Tatamy, and resi- 


dents there depend entirely on cistern water. 


Analyses of ground waters in Allentown quadrangle. 


[Parts per 





million. | 














Constituents 1 2 3 4 5 
Pa i eS, —| aa 
Pyne te Se ee ee ee OP pa ager pe Yk ee So Se | PR (Cg ar 
SME GL Mic tilt OS 0S» a a ee an EE) Cae sey He Se oyun LENO ih eg So tes pea Wage at TY pe 
CO oe = a ee ee Us Wad © cas kel Rape | MS ce Sp Re a a pe 
it pny eee, 2 FA2 TA A) 1 Aas ae | (altel SPEED A cae eae ee 
TSAR So iE a one ge 10 BN TAN yes hd A nee Ce oe Sec rece: Nye A |e ee 
neta) eee eer ae ee ee ee ee al | Soe A A ne oo eee LS 
LO ee eS ee eee 2s iy), Siete eae oA ihn 1 RS Ee SS 196 
UW a SS a ais = Fy ees SOE oe er See Cow sk Pe ee Sg eee 2 
Pa tere ee Oe A Aes a ee Zt ya 21 4.5 Doe 
Organie and volatile matter _______- ee ie a 2 2.4 16 (Ns 50 
DR PIME GIT cee eee ee eS ek 274 40 271 Tala ah | 15 
Moreen CONess asa aUOs oe <2 2-2 ce. 252 LS 13 Va ie OS 2 oe Ba Es 67 

















1Tron. 

Te 

2. 
Water from pre-Cambrian gneiss. 

Orystal Spring, Allentown. 

From 225-foot well near ‘Bath, Jan. 16, 

Well-water supply of South Allentown. 


Ol poo 


LOLS: 


From 290-foot well of Bethlehem Silk Mills, Bethlehem, Feb., 1907. 
Ciamel’s Hump Spring on north slope of Quaker Hill. 


Analysis by W. 





Analysis by S. P. Sadtler. 


Water from limeston-, 
H. Chandler. 





INDEX. 


A 


Allentown quadrangle, area of, 18 
cities of, 15 
drainage of, 20, 21 
forests of, 14 
geology of, 23 
highways of, 15 
industries of, 16, 17 
railroads, 15, 16 
rainfall, 14, 178 
temperature, 14 
topography, 17 

. Allophane, 78 

Alluvium, 147 

Amphiboles, 97 

Analyses of: 
aragonite, 78 
cement, 111 
Franklin limestone (N. J.), 114 
iron carbonate ore, 63 
lanthanite, 78 
limestone, 112, 113, 140, 141, 142, 

144 

limonite, 40 
magnetite, 66, 69, 70, 71 
mountain ores, 40 
ocher, 154, 155 
peat, 163 
slate, 132 
surface waters, 171 
umber, 157 
valley ores, 41 

Antimony, 79 

Aragonite, 76, 78 

Arsenic, 79 

Asbestos, 78 


B 


Bailey, IE. H. S., cited, 182 
Bayley, W. 8., cited, 66 
Beraunite, 39 

Biotite, 66, 67, 145, 160, 161 
Blake, W. P., cited, 78 
Bombshell ore (or pot ore), 37, 39, 45, 63 
Brachiopods, 111, 117 

Brass, 71, 738 

Brickyards, 150, 151 

Brown hematite ore, 30 
Bryozoans, 111, 117 


Calamine, 71, 72, 


- Calcite, 78, 85, 103,'110, 123, 127, 


Building stones, 127, 128, 129 
C 


Cacoxenite, 39 
Cadmium, 76, 77, 85 
La aL Ye Ce OU, os 
87, 88, 89 
aed 
138, 178 
Caleium, 117, 181 
carbonate, 105, 110, 118, 117, 122, 
123, 124, 148 
Carbon, 132 
Carbonate, So 
calcium, 105, 
123, 124, 148 
magnesium, 26, 102. 110; 112. 119, 
132, 148 


iron ores, 62, 63, 83, 


a HOF ee se Eg it ee 


84 
37, 45, 47, 81, 95 
Carbon dioxide, 45, 95 
Carbonie acid, 82, 84, 85 
Carter: Wer, Jr. cited, 164 
Catlett, Charles, cited, 158 
Cement, 98, 100, 112, 118 
history of, 99 
limestone, 26, 28, 109, 110, 1138, 122, 


123 


Ores; Bo, 


analyses of, 111 
character, 110 
chemical composition, 110 
distribution, 110 
fossils in, 111 
structure of, 111 
thickness of, 111 
materials, 102 
natural, 101, 124 
output (in Lehigh district), 101 
plants, 114-124 
Portland, 26, 100, 101, 102, 105, 112, 
PES PIV 1195 -123,7127,7152 
method of manufacture, 125 
quarrying, 124 
rock, 27, 28, 98, 106, 109, 110, 111, 
LOS 1253127 
analyses of, 106, 107, 108 
argillaceous, 108, 111, 123 
character, 103 


(191) 


192 


Cement—Continued. 
chemical composition, 105 
distribution, 102 
fossils in, 108 
structure of, 108 
thickness of, 109 
Cerium, 78 
Chaleocite, 95 
Chaleedony, 46, 148 
Chaleopyrite, 95, 98 
Chance, H. M., cited, 45, 158 
Chert, 26, 36, 39, 43, 128, 187 
Chlorine, 184 
Chlorite, 66, 132 
Clay, 26, 36, 40, 46, 47, 48, 75, 88, 97, 
105, 113, 123, 137, 148, 146, 152, 165, 
167 
analyses of, 114, 152 
black, 47 
glacial, 105, 109, 110, 
153 
loamy, 145 
ocherous, 37, 148 
residual, 86, 110, 137, 
tallow, 77 
white, 63, 114 
Clere, FE. L., cited, 82, 90 
Conglomerates, 27, 34, 146 
Copper, 71, 73, 94, 95 
Crinoid stems, 117, 122 
Crushed rock, materials for, 186, 1387, 


117, 149, 


151, 158, 157 


138 


D 


Dale, T. N., cited, 1380 

Diabase, 24, 25, 27, 129, 138, 167 
Dolomite, 78, 81, 85 

Dolomitic limestones, 24, 26, 84, 110, 
Drinker, H. S., cited, 81 


112 


E 
Wpidote, 25 
at 


Feldspar, 24, 25, 65, 67, 98, 144 
Fluorite, 105 

Fossils, 108, 111, 117 
Franklin limestone (N. J.), 
Tranklinite, 75 


20, 114 


Gabbro, 24, 25 
Gangue, 65, 88 
Castropods, 122 


Genth, I. A., cited, 77 

Glacial deposits, 28, 29 

Gneisses, 23, 42, 48, 64, 66, 67, 78, 80, 

95, 97, 129, 1388, 144, 145, 155 

decomposed, 144 
garnetiferous, 25 
granitic, 158 
pre-Cambrian, 24, 165, 182 
quartz-feldspar, 144 

yoethite, 33 

Gold, 98, 160 

Goslarite, 77 

Gossan, 45 

Graphite, 25, 105, 160, 161 

Gravel, 144, 145, 146, 147, 150 
alluvial, 147 
glacial, 146 

Greenockite, 76, 85 

Grit, 156 

Gypsum, 95, 114, 125, 126 


II 


Tlalloysite, 77 

Hardyston quartzite, 26, 155 
Harrisburg peneplain, 17, 47 

Hartz jig, 88 

Hematite ore, 30, 182 

Henry, Mather S., cited, 30, 72, 149 
Hornblende, 24, 25, 66, 67, 98, 144, 161 
Hudson River slates, 130 

Hydrozincite, 77 


Ilmenite, 24, 66 

Iron carbonate ore, 62, 63, 83, 84 
analysis of, 68 

Iron ore, 29, 30, 41, 42, 182)°156 
industry, history of, 29 4 


J 


Jasper, 36, 38, 39, 438 
Jasperoid rocks, 34, 36, 48 


K 


Kaolin, 39, 78, 138, 144, 145, 146 
Kemp, J. F., cited, 82 4 
Kerr, J. <A., cited, 164 

L 
Lake Superior ores, 52 
Lanthanite, 78 


(193 


Lead, 79 
Lesley, J. P., cited, 28, 82 
Lime, 105, 124, 132, 189, 140, 152 
Limestone, 17, 18, 19, 21, 42, 48, 44, 47, 
80, 84, 94, 102, 1038, 105, 112, 127, 
130, 132, 137, 139, 143, 146, 148, 150, 
178 | 
analyses of, 112, 118, 140, 141, 142, 
144 
argillaceous, 
Cambrian, 36 
cement, 28, 102, 108, 109 
dolomitic, 24, 26, 84, 110, 122 
for building stones, 127, 128, 129 
for flux, 148 
Franklin (N. J.), 25, 114 
magnesian, 28, 111, 141 
Ordovician, 36, 163 
pre-Cambrian graphitic, 25 


27, 102, 103, 111, 117 


residual, 105, 151 
Limonite, 26, 30, 39, 42, 44-48, 52, 63, 
78, 80, 85, 95, 96, 97, 148, 152, 153, 
157, 158 


analysis of, 40 

composition of, 39 

economic considerations of, 51 

marketing, 50 

method of working, 

mines, 538, 62 

mountain ores, 33, 34 

oecurrence, 35 

ocherous, 78, 85 

origin, 41, 42, 44 

physical character of, 37 

primary segregation of, 42 

valley ores, 33, 34 
aeoom 149, 150, 164, 165, 166 

Berks shale, 164 

Chester stony, 165 

Hagerstown, 165 , 

Penn shale, 166, 167 

Penn stony, 166 

Schuylkill fine sandy, 167 


48 


M 


Magnesia, 40, 102, 112, 132 
Magnesium carbonate, 26, 102, 110, 112, 
119, 132, 148, 181 
Magnetite ore, 24, 29, 30, 31, 33, 42, 
63-67, 82, 98, 1382 
analyses of, 66, 69, 70, 71 
character and composition, 65 
economic considerations, 68 


13B 


Magnetite ore—Continued. 
methods of mining, 67, 68 
mines, 69-71 
occurrence, 64 
origin, 66 — 
Malachite, 94, 95 
Manganese, 37, 39, 40, 46, 95, 96, 97, 155 
analysis of, 96 
dioxide, 97 
oxide, 95, 96, 155 
Marcasite, 75, 76, 78, 82, 83, 84, 85 
Martinsburg shale, 27, 129, 131 
general characteristics of, 130 
Melanterite, 76 
Mica, 24, 144, 162 
Mineral pigments, 153 
Molybdenite, 138 
Mountain ores, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 43, 96 
analyses of, 40 
mines, 56-62 
occurrence, 34 
Muscovite, 132, 162 


O 


OchetwoG) 152,-4535, 154, 155,156 
analyses of, 154, 155 

Ogden, J. C., cited, 157, 180 

Onyx, 137 

Ore: 
bombshell (or pot ore), 37, 39 
carbonate iron, 62, 63, 83, 84 
float, 36 
gray (carbonate), 33 
hematite, 30, 33 
iron, 29, 38, 51, 156 

future mining of, 52 
limonite, 30-39, 42, 44-48, 52, 63, 78, 
80, 85, 95, 96, 97, 148, 152, 153, 
157, 158 

magnetite, 29, 30, 31, 33, 63, 82 
mountain, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 48, 96 
“pipe,” 38 
“valley,” 38, 34 
“wash,” 38 

Orthoeclase, 65, 161 

Oxygen, 44, 45, 47, 76, 95, 145 


P 


Peat, 162, 163 

Pegmatite, 24, 25, 98, 161, 162 
Peneplain, 17, 19, 47 

Perthite, 161 

Petrified horsehair, 78 


194 


Phosphorus, 39, 40, 52 
Pig iron, 31, 32, 51 
Pinite rock, 26 
Pipe ore, 38 
Plagioclase, 25, 161 
Portland cement, 26, 100, 101, 102, 105, 
492 TUS IT, MILO 1S et eaon 
marketing, 126 
method of manufacture, 125 
Potsdam sandstones, 128 
Prime, Frederick, Jr., cited, 47, 
Psilomelane, 96 
Pyrite; 24, 26, 39, 40, 42-46, 66, 67,75, 
76, 78, 80, 82-88, 98, 105, 128, 182, 
158, 159, 160, 161, 183 
Pyrolusite, 39, 40, 46, 96, 97 
Pyroxene, 24, 25, 97, 144 


52, 100 


() 


e 


Quartz, 24, 38, 39, 43, 65, 66, 67, 69, 76, 
78, 85, 98, 108 sized 27. 4132), Ls5, 
137, 144, 146, 147, 148, 153, 161, 178 

blue, 161 
chaleedonic, 182... 
crystals, 148 ay 
petrified horsehair, 78 

Quartzite, 438, 47,. 78, 9477 148, 156, 165 
Cambrian; 33: $4, 26, 44, 45, 48, 49, 

96, 112, 158, 165 3 

Hardyston, 26, SGRss isp FES 
Potsdam, 128 


mH 
ev 


Rainfall, 14, 178 
Residuary iron ores, 41, 42 
Rogers, H. D., cited, 157 


S 


Salt, 95 
Sand, 37, 38, 97, 
alluvial, 147 
glacial, 146 
loamy, 146 
magnetite, 64 
prices of, 146, 148 
production, 146, 148 
quartz, 128, 146, 152 
uses of, 145 
Sanders, R. H., 
Sandstones, 27, 
131, 137,21Go 
brown, 129 
Cambrian, 28, 36, 48, 112, 128, 188 


144-148, 150, 151 


cited, 135, 136 
34, 38, 42, 48,.128, 1380, 


Sandstones—Continued. 
manganiferous, 97 
Potsdam, 128 
siliceous, 146, 147 
Triassic, 29 

Sauconite, 77 

Schists, 24, 25, 144 

Schooley peneplain, 19, 47 

Sericite, 25, 108, 1382, 144 

Shale, 17, 18, 26, 42, 438, 94, 130, 146, 

148, 178 
black, 153, 157 
damourite, 47 


Martinsburg, 27, 129, 1380, 131 


Ordovician, 28, 164 

red, 27 
Siderite, 37, 42, 45, 45, 46, 62 
Silica, 40, 52, 148 
Sillimanite, 144 
Slate, 108, 130-133, 147, 178 


black, 47, 48 
deposits, 131 
economic considerations, 134 
origin, 132 
“hard vein,” 180, 131 
Hudson River, 130 
Martinsburg, 109 
Ordovician, 28, 103, 164 
quarries, 135, 136 
“soft vein?” daU,milee 
uses of, 133 
Utica, 47 
Smithsonite, 75, 
Soapstone, 144 
Soils, 163-167 
Spar, 1382, 136 
Spelter, 71-75, 89 
Sphalerite, 75, 76, 77, 80, 82-89, 159 ~ 
Stinson, J. M., cited, 152 
Sulphur, 44, 87 
Sulphurie acid, 82, 84, 87 
Surface waters, 169 
analysis of, 171 


AR 


76, 80, 85, 87, 88, 89 


Tale, 144 
Titanium, 66 
Trap rock, 129, 138, 139 
Turgite, 33, 78 

U 
Umber, 153, 155, 156, 157 
Uraninite, 138 


195 


V Wavellite, 39 


Wells, 173-177 
Valley ores, 38, 34, 40, 42, 44, 52 


analysis of, 41 Z, 
mines, 53-56 Zine, 26, 71, 73, 75, 78, 79, 82-85, 159 
occurrence, 34, 35 character, 75 
Vitriol, 77 distribution, 75 
Ww future development, 89 
history of, 71 
Wash ore, 38, 48 milling, 88 
Waiter, 168-189 mines, 90-93 
ground, 171, 179, 181 mining, 86 
occurrence, 178 occurrence, 79 
source of, 171, 172 origin, 81 
municipal supplies, 184-189 oxide, 72, 77 
power, 168 169 production of, 74, 75 
resources, 168 Zincite, 73 


| THE UBRARY OF Hy 


OCT 2& j000 


GNIVERSITY op |. 'NOIg 





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